Phys Geology - Chapt. 8,9,10,11,23,12,13,14

Front 1

(James Hutton, Father of Geology):
- The Earth has evolved in a constant and uniform manner
- “Present is the key to the Past” Formation of geologic features found on the Earth in the past can be explained by natural processes that occur in the present
- “Physical and Chemical Laws are constant through time
- Geologic Time is immense

Back 1

Principle of Uniformitarianism

Front 2

(Nicolaus Steno) Oldest bed on bottom and youngest bed on top.

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Principle of superpositon

Front 3

(Sir Charles Lyell) This principle states that geologic features such as faults, veins, and dikes must be younger than the rocks or features across which they cut.

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Principle of Cross Cutting Relationship

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(Lyell)Principle of ______(rock fragments) are always older than the host rock. Fragments within larger rock masses are older than the rock masses in which they are enclosed. Whenever two rock masses are in contact, the one containing pieces of the other will be the younger of the two.

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Principle of inclusion

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States that groups of fossil plants and animals occur in the geologic record in a definite chronological order.
- Original geologic time chart was based on principles of Superpositon and Faunal Succession (no understanding of the length of geologic time original)
- Divided into lengths of time.
- A valueable principle for relative dating that is based on the process of organic evolution is...

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Principle of Faunal Succession

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Time of no life

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Precambrian

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Age of ancient life

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Paleozioc Era

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Age of the dinosaurs

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Mesozoic Era

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Age of the mammals

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Cenzoic Era

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Discontinuity in the succession of Rock Strata

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Unconformity

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Nearly flat‑lying strata overlying eroded edges of inclined or tilted older strata. Produces a gap in time known as a hiatus

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Angular Conformity

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Beds above and below the unconformity are parallel and horizontal to one another. The beds are separated by an erosional surface creating a hiatus

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Disconformity

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igneous or metamorphic rocks overlain by horizontal sedimentary rock. The intrusive igneous or metamorphic rocks are older than the overlying sedimentary rocks.
Example: Grand Canyon

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Nonconformity

Front 14

The time in which one-half of an original amount of a radioactive atoms decays to daughter products

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Half life

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Atoms that spontaneously decay

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Isotopes

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The radioactive isotope which undergoes decay is

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Parent element

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The parent element undergoes radioactive decay to form a

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Daughter element

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Is 4.6 Billion Years Old (Lunar & Meteorite Samples)

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Age of the earth due to measuring of moon rocks

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Life as we may know it, began 600 million years ago (4 billion years to set the “Stage for Life”

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Life began...

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Accounts for 87% of Geological Time

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Precambrian

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78%. The Atmosphere ocean system.
- Which of the following gasses makes up the greatest percent of Earth's atmosphere

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Nitrogen.

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21%. The Atmosphere ocean system

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Oxygen.

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Weather

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Troposphere

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Ozone layer

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Stratosphere

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Greenhouse Gas - CO2
The warming of a planets atmosphere caused when certain gases (especially water vapor and carbon dioxide) absorb solar energy reflected off the surface

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Greenhouse Effect

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The depletion is caused by the reaction of ozone with human made chemicals such as CFC's used in air conditioners (freeone)and formally as propellants in aerosol cans.

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Ozone depletion

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- Freeze thaw environements. Expansion of H20

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Ice Wedging; Physical weathering (mechanical)

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- Expansion of rock towards free surface
- Thermal expansion
- exfoliation of upper sheets

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Sheeting; Physical weathering (Mechanical)

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- Rooting
- Hoofed animals
- Microscopic Organism (lichens and moss)

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Animals and plants

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- H20 + CO2 = H2C03
- Acid rain

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Hydrolysis, Chemical weathering

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- Dissoliving of rock in H20
- Limestones
- Evaporites
Melting of rocks in water

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Dissolution; Chemical weathering

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- Exposure of rock to 02-
- Significance of red
- Iron Ore Minerals

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Oxidation, Chemical weathering

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Is a result of differences in the rates of weathering
- Different rocks weather at different rates
- Granite most resistant rock
- Quartz most resistant mineral
- Shale least resistant
- Climate

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Differential weathering of rocks

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Topsoil of sand and clay

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A horizon

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Subsoil of Clay

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B Horizon

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Weathered bedrock

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C Horizon

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thick A Thin B

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Grassland soil

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Thin A thick B

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Forest soil

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Rain

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Rates of weathering

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- Slowdown hill movement of the upper layers of the rock or strata.
- Upper edges of the slope are bent downslope

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Hillside Creep

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Rapid movement of the rock and strata along a curved geometric surface
- Slump Block (Landslide California)

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Slump

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- Uplift if very rapid
- Eroision is much slower

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Differential Eroision

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- Uplifted dome
- Eroision of upper strata of dome
- Exposure of the oldest rocks in the center of the structure
- Oldest bed in the middle

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Eroison of inclined strata

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- Location of Countries and landforms
- Location of property
- Constitutional rights
- Right of ownership
- Court house documents

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Importance of maps

Front 45

- Cover large areas of land with minimal on-ground surveying
- Overlap images by 60% to provide 3-D images of the surface

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Aerial Photography

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- first Satellites were camera operated. Camera pod was ejected into the atmosphere for recovery
- digital satellites relay real-time information to earth stations
- Sputnik series of spy satellite images
- I-10 and Beltway 8 (HCC-NW Town and Country campus)
- Landsat images with natural color enhance false color
- Lake Powell, Death Vally
- Location determination via Triangulation

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Landsat and Radar Imagery (Remote sensing by Satellites)

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- North-South Lines
- Prime meridian
- 0 degress longitude
- Greenwich England

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Location coordinates; Longitude

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East- West Lines
- Equator
- 0 degress latitude

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Location coordinates; Latitude

Front 49

- Longitude lines are equidistant
- High latitude continents are bigger than they are

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Mercator Projection

Front 50

- Latitudes are equidistant
- Warps E-W latitudes
- Trends to solve aerial coverage problems

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Conical projection

Front 51

- Texas utilizes the Spanish Land grant System
- Haphazard survey method using boundaries of rivers, Natural landforms, and Oak trees
- Inherited from Spain to Mexico to the Republic of Texas to the USA

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Public land survey system

Front 52

- USGS mandated by the Executive branch to keep and maintain all official maps fo the USA

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United States Geological Survey USGS Topographic maps

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Show the configuation of the Earth's surface by means of Countour lines
- Coutour lines are of equal elevation

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Topographic maps

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Verbal scale 1":1 mile
- Graphical scale (if map is reduced or enlarges by copying the graphical scale will also be proportionately reduced or enlarged)

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Scales

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Constant difference in elevation

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Contour interval

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Highest point - lowest point
- Countours "v" upstream
- Closed contours indicate hills
- Closely spaced contours indicate a steep slope

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Relief

Front 57

Subsurface water contained within pore space (voids) of a rock.
- Due to the infiltration of water

Back 57

Groundwater

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Study of Groundwater

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Hydrogeology

Front 59

The amount of void space within a rock (%), good porosity~30% lends itself to water storage.
- Example: Sandstone, shale

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Porosity

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Capacity or ability of a rock to transmit fluid (darceys), good perm example: Sandstone not Shale (impermeable)
- The ability of a porous solid to transmit a fluid is called

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Permeability

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Pore space is < 100% saturated

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Zone of Aeration

Front 62

Pore space is 100% saturated

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Zone of saturation

Front 63

The upper surface of the Zone of Saturation expressed as an elevation (not constant)

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Water table

Front 64

Water is transmitted from high pressure to low pressure due to elevation differences in the Zone of Saturation.
- Outcrops of the water table represent low pressure which may occur at Springs, Rivers, and Lakes

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Hydraulic Head

Front 65

Hydraulic head is great enough to cause the water to rise above the top of the acquifer when it is tapped by a well.
Example: Edward's Aquifier, Barton Creek, Austin

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Artisean Aquifer

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Balcones Fault Zone and Edward's Aquifier

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US Major Aquifiers

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Inversion of the water table due to the mining of groundwater.
- Allows air to enter bore hole causing foaming at the surface

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Cone of Depression

Front 68

Leached fluids from illegal disposal pits.
- Case I: Leached into sandstone
Case II: Leached into shale

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Groundwater pollution

Front 69

Infiltration of saltwater in coastal aquifiers due to groundwater mining

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Saltwater Encroachment

Front 70

Extraction of water from the zone of Saturation causing the collapse of pore space and ultimetley the ground itself.
- Subsidence in Brownwood, Texas

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Subsidence

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- Hot rocks
- Fractured reservoir
- Ample supply of groundwater
- Yellowstone national park

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Thermal Geysers and Springs

Front 72

Based on Radiometric decay of ______

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Isotopes

Front 73

So by measuring the amount of Parent to Daughter isotope in an ______ one can calculate the age of the rock
EX:
After one half life
- 50% Parent
- 50% Daughter
Time: 100 my

After two half lives
- 25% Parent
- 75% Daughter
Time: 200

After three half lives
- 12.5% Parent
- 87.5% Daughter
Time: 300 my

After four half lives
- 6.25% Parent
- 93.75 Daughter
Time: 400 my

Back 73

Igneous Rock

Front 74

Soil Formation

Back 74

Regolith

Front 75

24 satellites at a cost of 12 billion dollars (4 on stand by)

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Global Positioning System

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90% Runoff

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Urbanization

Front 77

90% infiltration

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Rural

Front 78

Increases infiltration in Urbanized areas

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Detention Ponds

Front 79

Network of Tributaries that grow by Headward Erosion.
- Dendritic erosional pattern

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Collection System

Front 80

Transition from gullies to intermittent streams to permanant tributaries

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Headward Eroision

Front 81

- Meandering main channel that funnels water to the Delta
- Formation of Point bars and Cutbanks
- Decrease in tributaries downstream

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Transporting System

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Stream velocity is measured in...

Back 82

ft/sec

Front 83

Speed at which different sized sediment settle in a water column measured in ft/sec

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Settling velocity

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Amount of water and sediment a stream can carry. Large streams have a high capacity (large cross-section)

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Stream Capacity

Front 85

Size of the largest particle a stream can carry. Small streams have a high competence (high flood velocity)

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Stream Competence

Front 86

Amount of water passing a given point during a specific interval of time

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Discharge

Front 87

= ft.2 * ft/sec = ft.3/sec
(x section * velocity = discharge.

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Discharge ft3/sec (volume over time)

Front 88

Coarse load of gravel and boulders.
- Settling velocity > Stream Velocity.
- Gravel moves by Saltation, boulders by rolling

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Bedload

Front 89

Fine particles of silt and clay.
- Stream Velocity > Settling velocity

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Suspended Load

Front 90

Settling velocity is > than Stream Velocity

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Point bar deposition

Front 91

Stream velocity is > than settling Velocity

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Cutbank Eroision and transportation

Front 92

- Due to broad plateau uplifts and down cutting of stream
- Function of secondary uplifts of a mature river system
- Differential eroision and weathering

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Entrenched (Incised) Meanders

Front 93

- System of dividing distributaries
- Site of massive depostion of stream load

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Dispersing system

Front 94

- River reaches base level (lowest level to which a stream can erode)
- Stream gradiant approaches zero
- Stream velocity decreases
- Settling velocity > Stream velocity
- Deposition of load as mouth bars at sea level
- Stream divides into distributaries

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Dispersing System Dynamics

Front 95

- Depostion of 7 lobes through time
- Lobe 7 formed by US Corps of Engineers for navigation purposes
- Delta wants to capture the Atchafalya basin
- Lobe 7 depostion
- Fine particles of silt and clay (green areas) are carried farther from the source area

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Mississippi River Delta History

Front 96

Ice sheets that cover large portions of a continent

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Continental Glaciers

Front 97

Ice streams confined to valley or canyons

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Valley Glaciers

Front 98

River (fluvial) Valleys are...

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"V" shaped

Front 99

Glacial valleys are...

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"U" shaped due to the over steepened valley walls

Front 100

Lifting of boulders from the sides and floor of the glacier due to ice wedging
- Glacial Horns

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Glacial Plucking

Front 101

- Ice age started 2 million years ago
- 4 periods of glaciation
- Biological impact; Homo sapiens and mammels

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Pleistocene Glaciation

Front 102

- Wobble of earth's axis
- Decrease on CO2

Back 102

Causes of Ice Age

Front 103

- Eroision and collapse of limestones cavers by hydrolysis causing sinkholes H20 + CO2 = H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
- Sinkhole formation Florida
Series of sinkholes occurs in Florida, Kentucky & Tennessee

Back 103

Karst Topography

Front 104

Where does saltwater encroachment occur?

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Coastline

Front 105

- Based on Radiometric decay of Isotopes (atoms that spontaneously decay)

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Absolute Time (Quantitative)

Front 106

- Ex: U238 to Pb 206 Uranium to lead
- Atomic number decreases due to decay of the nucleus

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Decay from Parent to Daughter product

Front 107

Other World Delta's include...

Back 107

- Mekong, Vietanm
- Niger, Nigeria
- Nile, Egypt

Front 108

Relative (Qualitative)
dating is determining the...

Back 108

Chronological order of a sequence of events

Front 109

Is characteristic of a continent's stable platform and forms plateau's, mesas, buttes, and pinnacles

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Differential eroision of Horizontal Strata

Front 110

Historical significance of angular unconformity. Sequence of events are...

Back 110

Depostion of lower beds horizontially as they were here because of superpostion, eroision
- Depositon of A or older strata
- Tilting of A
- Erosion of A
- Depostion of upper beds

Front 111

History of Disconfonformity

Back 111

- Depostion of A, lower bed
- Erosion of lower bed
- Depostion of upper bed
forms disconformity

Front 112

What is the atmosphere composed of?

Back 112

Nitrogen & Oxygen

Front 113

Physical weathering includes...

Back 113

- Ice Wedgeding
- Sheeting
- Animals & Plants

Front 114

Chemical weathering includes...

Back 114

- Hydrolisis
- Dissolution
- Oxidation

Front 115

How long does it take to build a mountain?

Back 115

A million years, not very long

Front 116

Is the #1 agent even in desert of eroision

Back 116

Water

Front 117

The order of eroision of Horizontal Strata

Back 117

- Plateau
- Mesa's
- Butte
- Pinnacle

Front 118

Formation of arches are formed by...

Back 118

Water

Front 119

Transition from gullies...

Back 119

Carries water when it rains

Front 120

Intermittent streams...

Back 120

Wet season

Front 121

Permanent tributaries...

Back 121

All year around, erodes upslope

Front 122

Stream velocity is measured in...

Back 122

Ft/sec

Front 123

What is depostion of stream?

Back 123

- Conglomerate
- Sandstone
- Siltstone
- Shale

Front 124

Lowest level to which a stream can erode..

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Base Level

Front 125

The daugher product eventually formed by the decay of uranium is...

Back 125

Lead

Front 126

Which type of rock is best for age dating...

Back 126

Igneous

Front 127

- Inner banks contained by levee deposits
- Outer banks contained by bedrocks
- Meanders with Point Bar and Cutbank Environments
- Oxbow lakes from cutoff meanders

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Transporting stream dynamics

Front 128

Which of the following rocks is known to have a low permability?

Back 128

Shale