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230 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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2 categories of senses |
Special senses Somatic senses |
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Special senses |
Sensors located in certain areas: vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium |
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Somatic senses |
Sensors distributed across body: touch, temp, pain, itch, proprioception |
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Sensory pathway |
1. stimulus 2. Converts signal 3. Sensory nerves moved to CNS 4. Signals integrated in CNS |
4 |
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Conscious stimulus processing |
Special senses Somatic senses |
2 |
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Subconscious stimulus processing |
Somatic stimuli: muscle tension Visceral stimuli: BP, pH etc |
2 |
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Simple receptors |
Neurons with free nerve endings |
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Complex neural receptors |
Nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules |
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Specialized receptor cells |
Cells that release neurotransmitters onto sensory neurons, initiating an action potential |
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4 types of sensory receptors |
Chemoreceptors Mechanoreceptors Thermoreceptors Photoreceptors |
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Chemoreceptors |
Sense things like oxygen, pH, glucose, other organic molecules |
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Mechanoreceptors |
Pressure (baroreceptors), cell stretch (osmoreceptors), vibration, acceleration, sound |
5 |
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Thermoreceptors |
Heat differences |
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Photoreceptors |
Photons of light |
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Adequate stimulus |
The particular form of energy a certain receptor responds to; (light for photoreceptor) |
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What happens when a stimulus is above a threshold |
A receptor potential is initiated |
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What can the receptor potential do to cells as it makes its way to the CNS |
Initiate action potentials or influence neurotransmitter secretion |
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Receptive field |
Area where neurons can be stimulated |
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Convergence |
When multiple neurons provide input to a smaller number of postsynaptic neurons |
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2 point discrimination test demonstrates that |
The smaller the receptive field, the most sensitive the area |
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What sense does the midbrain process |
Visual info |
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What sense does the medulla oblongata process |
Sound & taste |
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What sense does the cerebellum process |
Balance & equilibrium |
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What senses does the thalamus process |
Relay & processing station for all of the stated senses |
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How does olfactory information travel |
From the nose to first cranial nerve (olfactory bulb) to cerebrum |
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Perceptual threshold |
Level of stim intensity for you to be aware of a particular sensation |
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What are the 4 properties of stimulus that the CNS must distinguish |
1. Nature (modality) 2. Location 3. Intensity 4. Duration |
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Sensory modality |
Nature of a stimulus is determined by the sensory neuron that detects it |
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Labeled line coding |
Certain receptors will only send a certain signal to the brain |
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Location of stimulus |
Sensory regions in the cerebrum are organized with respect to incoming signals |
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Phantom limb pain |
When sensory neurons in the spinal cord become hyperactive, resulting in the sensation of pain in a limb that is no longer there |
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What sense is the exception when it comes to location |
Auditory information |
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How does the brain determine the location of sound |
By using the timing of receptor activation to compute the location |
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Lateral inhibition |
Increases contrast and isolates the location of stimulus |
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Population coding |
Multiple neurons send more info than a single receptor could |
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Can the intensity of a stimulus be calculated from a single neuron |
No |
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What 2 ways is stimulus intensity calculated |
Number of receptors activated (population coding) How frequently those neurons are firing (frequency coding) |
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Duration of stimulus |
Longer stimulus= longer series of action potentials |
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2 types of receptors that adapt to duration |
Tonic Phasic |
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Tonic receptors |
Fire rapidly when first activated but slow down later |
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Phasic receptors |
Fire as soon as they receive stim, but stop firing if stim remains constant |
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Stimulus intensity & duration are coded by |
A pattern of action potentials reaching the CNS |
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Stimulus location/ modality are coded by |
Which receptors are activated |
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4 somatosensory modalities |
1. Touch 2. Proprioception 3. Temp 4. Nociception (pain/itch) |
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Pathway of somatic senses |
1. Receptors activated 2. Action potential triggered 3. Primary sensory neurons synapse onto interneurons in spine 4. Secondary neurons cross midline of body 5. Secondary sensory neurons synapse onto tertiary neurons in thalamus 6. Ascending sensory tracts terminate in somatosensory cortex |
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Pacinian corpuscles (somatic receptor) |
Large, complex neurons that sense vibrations |
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Cold receptors (somatic) |
Free nerve endings (simple) that terminate in subcutaneous layers of skin |
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Nociceptors |
Free nerve endings (simple) that detect a variety of strong noxious stimuli |
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Nociceptors are associated with |
Pain |
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Where does an itch come from |
Nociceptors in the skin |
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Withdrawal reflex |
Protective spinal reflex that causes an appendage exposed to intense nociception to pull away |
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What causes referred pain |
Multiple primary sensory neurons in the viscera converge on an ascending tract |
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Chemoreception |
Smell and taste (gustation) |
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What is one of the most ancient scents |
Olfaction |
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5 Taste sensations |
1. Salty 2. Sour 3. Bitter 4. Sweet 5. Umami |
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3 parts of the ear |
External Middle Inner |
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External ear |
Pinna & ear canal, ends with tympanic membrane |
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Middle ear |
Air filled cavity, connects to pharynx through eustacian tube. Contains 3 bones: malleus, incus, stapes |
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Inner ear |
Vestibular apparatus w semicircular canals and cochlea |
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What hertz can we hear |
20-20,000 |
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Hearing steps |
1. Tympanic membrane vibrates 2. Energy vibrates 3 bones 3. Vibration causes fluid waves in cochlea 4. Hair cells bend and creates electrical signal that alters neurotransmitter release 5. Neurotransmitters release onto sensory neurons and create action potentials 6. Energy transfers across cochlear duct and is dissipated into middle ear |
6 |
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3 forms of hearing loss |
Conductive Central Sensorineural |
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Conductive hearing loss |
Sound cannot be transmitted through external/middle ear |
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What can conductive hearing loss be caused by |
Earwax, infection, disease/trauma to 3 bones |
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Central hearing loss |
Damage to neural pathways between ear and cerebral cortex; can be caused by stroke |
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Sensorineural hearing loss |
Damage to inner ear; loud noises, most common, irreversible |
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How is equilibrium mediated |
Through hair cells in the vestibular apparatus & semicircular canals |
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3 steps of vision |
1. Light enter eye, lens focuses 2. Photoreceptors transduct light to electrical signals 3. Neural pathways process signals into images |
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What does the pupil control |
How much light enters the eye by dilating and constricting |
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What do pupils allow us to do |
Estimate depth |
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What muscle is contracted by the lens |
Ciliary muscle |
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Refraction |
Bending light |
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Focal point |
Single point where light converges |
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Focal length |
Distance from the center of the lense to the focal point |
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By age 40 what percentage of accommodation do we lose |
50% |
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Presbyopia |
Loss of accommodation; need reading glasses |
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Myopia |
Near sighted; focal point is before retina |
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Hyperopia |
Far sighted; focal point behind retina |
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Phototransduction |
Retina recives light energy and photoreceptors on the retina transduce the light energy into electrical signals |
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Visible light wavelengths |
400- 750nm |
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Rods |
Low light; outnumber cones 20:1 |
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Cones |
High acuity; color vision |
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Most sensitive part of the retina |
Fovea |
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Color blindness |
Deficit in one of the three types of cones |
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Convergence |
Many neurons innervating a single cell |
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What stimulates the optic nerve |
Axons |
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2 efferent systems |
Somatic Autonomic |
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What does the somatic motor neurons control |
Skeletal muscles |
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What does the autonomic neurons control |
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Glands Lymphoid tissue Some adipose tissue |
5 |
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2 branches of autonomic nervous system |
Sympathetic Parasympathetic |
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Sympathetic ns |
Fight/flight |
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Parasympathetic ns |
Rest and digest |
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Autonomic pathway |
1. Preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic 2. Neurons project axon onto target tissue 3. Pathways diverge(branch out) |
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How many postganglionic neurons does 1 preganglionic neurons synapse onto |
8-9 |
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Where do most sympathetic pathways originate |
Thoracic or lumbar regions of spinal chord |
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Where do most parasympathetic pathways originate |
In the brainstem or sacral region |
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Neuroeffector junction |
Synapse between autonomic neuron and target cells |
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2 main neurotransmitters for the autonomic system |
Acetylcholine Norepinephrine |
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Neuromuscular junction |
Synapse where somatic motor neuron reaches muscle fiber |
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Motor end plate |
Series of folds on the muscle cell membrane |
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What happens when acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptors |
Na+ ions enter into the muscle and depolarize the fiber |
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What 3 things do muscles generate |
Motion Force Heat |
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3 types of muscle |
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth |
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What kind of muscles are made from striated muscle |
Skeletal and cardiac |
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Neural reflex pattern |
1. Stimulus is sensed 2. Receptor sends and afferent signal 3. CNS initates action potential 4. Efferent neurons reach targets 5. Effectors display a response |
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Many autonomic reflexes exhibit what kind of control |
Tonic |
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4 components of skeletal muscle reflexes |
1. Proprioceptors report to CNS 2. CNS integrates input signal 3. Somatic neurons carry signal 4. Effectors contract muscle |
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3 types of proprioceptors |
Joint receptors Golgi tendon organs Muscle spindles |
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Joint receptors |
Found in joints/ligaments Stim by mechanical distortion that comes when flexing joints |
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Golgi tendon organs |
Found at junction between tendons & muscles; free nerve endings wound in collogen; provide info on tension |
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Muscles spindles |
Small, elongated structures arranged parallel to contractile extrafusal muscle fibers |
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Where on muscle spindles contracts |
At the ends |
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Muscle tone |
Level of tension a muscle has at rest |
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Stretch reflex |
When muscles stretch, intrafusal fibers in the spindles stretch and initiate contraction |
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Myotatic unit |
Synergistic and antagonistic muscles that control a single joint |
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Reciprocal inhibition |
When muscles in myotatic unit contracts the antagonistic muscles are relaxed |
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Flexion reflexes |
Polysynaptic reflexes that cause a limb to be pulled away from a painful stimulus |
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Crossed extensor reflex |
Postural reflex that helps maintain balance when one foot is lifted from the ground |
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3 kinds of movement |
Reflexes Voluntary Rhythmic |
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Relax movements are integrated where |
Mainly in spinal cord, some in brain |
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What is the least complex movement |
Reflexes |
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Postural movements |
Help us maintain our positions as we stand or move |
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Where are postural movements integrated |
Brain stem; informed by vestibular apparatus |
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Where are voluntary movements integrated |
Cerebral cortex |
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Rhythmic movements |
Combination of reflexes and voluntary movement (walking) |
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Where are rhythmic movements initiated & terminated |
Cerebral cortex |
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Voluntary movement signal path |
Cortex Spine Through corticospinal tract |
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What is effected in Parkinsons disease |
Basal ganglia |
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What is the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscles controlled by |
Hormones, autonomic ns, spontaneously |
3 |
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Cardiovascular system |
Circulatory system is composed of heart, blood vessels, and the blood |
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Function of cardiovascular system |
Transport nutrients, water, gases, wastes, and signals |
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Can single celled organisms transfer gases and nutrients from the environment |
Yes because of their large surface area:volume ratio |
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Arteries |
Carry blood away from the heart |
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Veins |
Carry blood to the heart |
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How many times a day does the heart pump |
100,000 |
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What allows the circulatory system to move directionally |
Heart valves |
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Atrium |
Receives blood returning from veins |
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Ventricle |
Pumps blood out into vessels |
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What side of the heart sends blood to the lungs |
Right side |
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What side of the heart recives oxygenated blood and pumps it out to the body |
Left side |
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Heartbeat hypothesis |
Lifespan seems to be related to metabolic rate |
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2 routes of circulation |
Pulmonary circulation Systematic circulation |
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Pulmonary circulation |
Goes from the right side of the heart to the lungs then back to the heart |
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Systemic circulation |
Goes from the left side of the heart to the rest of the body then back to the heart |
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What has the highest pressure in the heart |
Aorta |
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What part of the heart has the lowest pressure |
Vena cava |
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What 3 factors is resistance controlled by |
Length of vessel Blood viscosity Diameter of vessel |
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Flow rate |
Volume of blood that passes one point in the system per unit time |
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Velocity |
The distance that a given volume of blood will travel in a period of time |
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Myocardium |
The muscle your heart is mainly made up of |
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Pericardium |
Tough membranous sac surrounding heart |
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4 important valves in the heart |
Tricusped Pulmonary Bicuspid Aortic valve |
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Pulmonary valve |
Separates the right ventricle from pulmonary trunk |
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Aortic valve |
Separates left ventricle and aorta |
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Can the heart beat without input from the nervous system |
Yes |
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Pacemaker cells |
Cells in sinoatrial node (SA node) |
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EKGs record what 3 things |
P-wave QRS complex T waves |
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P-waves |
Atrial depolarizarion |
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QRS complex |
Ventricular depolerization |
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T wave |
Ventricular repolarization |
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One cardiac cycle includes |
1 contraction and 1 relaxation |
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Systole |
Contraction cycle |
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Diastole |
Relaxation cycle |
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Stroke volume |
Amount of blood pumped per ventricle per unit time |
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What is the main goal of the cardiovascular system |
Maintain blood flow to the brain and heart |
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Total blood flow = |
Cardiac output |
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Vessel pattern |
Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins |
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What are vessels made of |
Smooth muscle, elastic connective tissue Fibrous connective tissue |
3 |
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Endothelium |
Inner lining of blood vessels |
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Angiogenesis |
Growth/formation of new blood vessels |
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Pulse |
The heartbeat as felt by the contraction of the ventricles |
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Pulse pressure |
Systolic pressure - diastolic pressure |
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Systolic pressure ideal |
120 mm Hg or less |
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Ideal diastolic pressure |
80 mm Hg or less |
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Edema |
Excess fluid accumulating in the interstitial spaces |
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Biggest risk factors of cardiovascular disease |
Smoking Obesity |
2 |
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Atherosclerosis |
Hardening of the arteries; contributes to 1 in every 3.4 deaths from cardiovascular disease |
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Hypertension |
Chronically elevated blood pressure |
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What is blood composed of |
Plasma Blood cells |
2 |
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Where do blood cells come from |
Stem cells in the bone marrow |
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3 types of blood cells |
Red blood cells (oxygen delivery) White blood cells (immune cells) Platelets (clotting) |
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Hematopoiesis |
Making of new blood cells |
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Erythropoietin |
Cytocine that stimulates RBC development |
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4 jobs of the respiratory system |
1. Exchange gas between atmosphere and blood 2. Regulates pH 3. Protection from inhaled pathogens 4. Vocalization |
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Cellular respiration |
Intracellular reaction of oxygen with organic molecules |
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External respiration |
Movement of gases between the environment and the bodys cells |
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Respiratory system definition |
Series of anatomical structures used for ventilation |
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Upper respiratory tract includes |
Mouth Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx |
4 |
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Lower respiratory tract includes |
Trachea 2 primary bronchi Lungs |
3 |
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How does air move |
1. Enters through nose/mouth 2. Moves into pharynx 3. Moves into trachea through larynx 4. Goes into bronchi then bronchioles 5. Lung |
5 |
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What 3 things does the upper respiratory tract do |
1. Warms air up to body temp 2. Adds humidity 3. Filters out foreign material |
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Where does filtering take place in respiratory system |
Ciliated epithelial tissue bathed in saline and mucous |
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What does cyctic fibrosis prevent |
Saline layer from forming on epithelial tissue |
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Alveoli |
Air filled clusters at the ends of the terminal bronchioles |
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Alveoli function |
Make up most of lung tissue and do gas exchange between air and blood |
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Type 1 alveolar cells |
Thin and do gas exchange by diffusion; most common |
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Type 2 alveolar cells |
Smaller but thicker than 1; help lungs expand & secrete surfactant |
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Do alveoli contain muscles |
No |
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What fills 80-90% of the space between alveoli |
Blood vessels |
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Pulmonary functioning tests |
-How much air is moved during normal breathing -How much air is moved during maximum effort |
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Spirometer |
Instrument used to measure pulmonary volume |
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4 lung volumes |
Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume Expiratory reserve volume Residual volume |
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Tidal volume |
Amount of air taken I'm during a single normal inspiration |
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Vital capacity |
Tidal volume + expiratory and inspiratory reserve volumes |
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Residual volume |
Air in the lungs at the end of maximal expiration |
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Total lung capacity |
Vital capacity + residual volume |
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Inspiratory capacity |
Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume |
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Functional residual capacity |
Expiratory reserve volume + residual volume |
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Expiratory muscles |
External intercostals and abdomen muscles |
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Lung compliance |
Ability to stretch the lungs |
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Elastance |
Measure of elastic recoil |
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What does emphysema do to the lungs |
Decreases elastance but increases compliance |
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Restrictive lung diseases & pulmonary fibrosis |
Inhibit compliance & make it harder to breath in |
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Surfactants |
Decrease surface tension in the fluid lining the alveoli which decreases amount of work needed to inflate them |
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Bronchocontriction |
Decrease in airway diameter |
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Bronchodilation |
Increase in airway diameter |
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Causes of bronchodilation |
1. Increased C02 in expired air 2. Parasympathetic neurons trigger it in response to irritant 3. Epinephrine 4. Histamine |
4 |
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Total pulmonary ventilation |
Ventilation rate × Tidal volume |
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Alveolar ventilation |
Ventilation rate × (Tidal volume- dead space volume) |
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Hyperventilation |
Breathing so fast that alveolar 02 increases and C02 decreases |
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Hypoventilation |
Breathing decreases so that 02 decreases and C02 increases |
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Obstructive lung disease |
Caused by increased resistance |
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Asthma |
Inflammatory condition characterized by bronchoconstriction and pulmonary edema |
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2 main gases our blood moves |
Oxygen Carbon dioxide |
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What percent of carbon dioxide in the blood is dissolved in the plasma |
7% |
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What does carbonic anhydrase convert carbon dioxide into |
Carbonic acid |
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What 3 things is diffusion rate directly proportional to |
Surface area Concentration gradient Barrier permeability |
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What is diffusion rate inversely proportionate to |
Diffusion distance |
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Where does neural control of respiration take place |
Medulla and Pons |
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What is the rhythmic pattern of breathing controlled by |
Brainstem |
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