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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Consciousness
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A person's awareness of his or her own existence, sensations, and cognitions
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Normal consciousness
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State of awareness that occurs during the usual waking state; also called waking consciousness
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Altered state of consciousness (ASC)
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State of awareness that is other than the normal waking state
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Sleep
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The naturally recurrent experience during which normal consciousness is suspended
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Hypnogogic sleep
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The initial stage of sleep, which lasts about 5 minutes and can include the sensation of gentle falling or floating or sudden jerking of the body
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REM sleep
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Stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and marked brain activity
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REM rebound
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the higher percentage of REM sleep that occurs following a night lacking the normal amount of REM
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Manifest content
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The obvious, memorable content of a dream.
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Latent content
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The symbolic content and meaning of a dream
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Activation-synthesis hypothesis
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The theory that dreams arise from random bursts of nerve cell activity, which may affect brain cells involved in hearing and seeing; the brain attempts to make sense of this hodgpodge of stimuli, resulting in the experience of dreams
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Circadian rhythms
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The body's daily fluctuations in response to the cycle of dark and light, which occur with blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature, blood sugar level, hormone levels, and metabolism
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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A small part of the hypothalamus just above the optichiasm that registers changes in light, leading to the production of hormones that regulate various bodily functions
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Night terrors
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Vivid and frightening experiences while sleeping; the sleeper may appear to be awake during the experience but has no memory of it the following day
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Nightmare
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A dream with strong negative emotion
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Narcolepsy
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Sudden attacks of extreme drowsiness
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Insomnia
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Repeated difficulty falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, or waking up too early
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Sleep apnea
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A disorder characterized by a temporary cessation of breathing during sleep, usually preceded by a period of difficult breathing accompanied by loud snoring
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Hypnosis
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A state of mind characterized by a focused awareness on vivid, imagined experiences and decreased awareness of the external environment
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Hypnotic induction
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The procedure used to attain a hypnotic trance state
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Trance state
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A hypnotically induced altered state of consciousness in which awareness of the external environment is diminished
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Trance logic
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An uncritical acceptance of incongruous, illogical events during a hypnotic trance
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Posthypnotic suggestion
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A suggestion regarding a change in perception, mood, or behavior that will occur after leaving the hypnotic state
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Trance theory
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The view that a person in a trance experiences an altered, dissociated state of consciousness characterized by increasing susceptibility and responsiveness to suggestion
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Glove anesthesia
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Hypnotically induced lack of feeling in the hand
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Meditation
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An altered state of consciousness characterized by a sense of deep relaxation and loss of self awareness
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Depressants
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A class of substances, including barbiturates, alcohol, and antianxiety drugs, that depress the central nervous system, decreasing the user's behavioral activity and level of awareness; also called sedative-hypnotic drugs
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Disinhibition
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The inhibition of inhibitory neurons, which makes other neurons )the ones that are usually inhibited) more likely to fire and which usually occurs as a result of depressant use
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Inhibitory conflict
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An internal response when a behavior is both strongly instigated and inhibited
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Hallucinogen
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A substance that induces hallucinations
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Flashback
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A hallucination that recurs without the use of a drug
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Alcohol myopia
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The disproportionate influence of immediate experience on behavior and emotion due to effects of alcohol abuse
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Substance abuse
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Drug or alcohol use that causes distress or trouble with functioning in major areas of life, occurs in dangerous situations, or leads to legal difficulties
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Tolerance
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The condition of requiring more of a substance to achieve the same effects (because the usual amount provides a diminished response)
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Withdrawl symptoms
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The onset of uncomfortable of life-threatening effects when the use of a substance is stopped
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Substance dependence
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Chronic substance abuse that is characterized by seven symptoms, the two most important being tolerance and withdrawl
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Learning
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A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
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Classical conditioning
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A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes paired (associated) with a stimulus that causes a reflective behavior and, in time, is sufficient to produce that behavior
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
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A stimulation that elicits an automatic response (UR), without requiring prior learning
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Unconditioned response (UR)
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The reflexive response elicited bya particular stimulus
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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An originally neutral stimulus that acquires significance through pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
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Conditioned response (CR)
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A response that depends, or is conditional, on pairings of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus; once learned, the conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone
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Acquisition
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In classical conditioning, the initial learning of the conditioned response (CR)
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Biological preparedness
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A built-in readiness for certain conditioned stimuli to elicit particular conditioned response, so less conditioning (training) is necessary to produce learning
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Extinction
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In classical conditioning, the process by which a CR comes to be eliminated through repeated presentations of the CS without the presence of the US
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Stimulus generalization
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A tendency for the CR to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are like, but not identical to, the CS; in other words, the response generalizes to similar stimuli
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Stimulus discrimination
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The ability to distinguish among stimuli similar to the CS and to respond only to the actual CD
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Operant conditioning
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The process by which a behavior becomes associated with the consequences
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Reinforcement
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The process by which consequences lead to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again
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Reinforcer
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An object or event that comes after a response and that changes the likelihood of its recurrence
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Positive reinforcement
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Occurs when a desired reinforcer is presented after a behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior
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Negative reinforcement
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Occurs when an unpleasant event or circumstance that follows a behavior is removed, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of the behavior
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Primary reinforcer
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An event or object, such as food, water, or relief from pain, that is inherently reinforcing
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Generalization
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The ability to emit a leaned behavior in response to a similar stimulus
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Shaping
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The gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behavior that gets closer to the desired behavior
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Successive approximations
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The series of smaller behaviors involved in shaping a complex behavior
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Continuous reinforcement
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Reinforcement given for each desired response
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Interval schedule
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Partial reinforcement schedule based on time
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Ratio schedule
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Partial reinforcement schedule based on a specified number of emitted responses
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Fixed interval schedule
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Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given for a response emitted after a fixed interval of time
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Variable interval schedule
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Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given for a response emitted after a variable interval of time
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Fixed ratio schedule
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Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses
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Variable ratio schedule
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Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses
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Cognitive learning
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The acquisition of information that often is not immediately acted on but is stored for later use
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Latent learning
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Learning that occurs without behavioral signs
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Insight learning
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Learning that occurs when a person or animal suddenly grasps what something means and incorporates that new knowledge into old knowledge
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Observational learning
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Learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement
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Encoding
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The process of organizing and transforming incoming information so that it can be entered into memory, either to be stored or to be compared with previously stored information
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Storage
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The process of retaining information in memory
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Retrieval
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The process of accessing information stored in the memory
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Memory store
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A set of neurons that serves to retain information over time
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Sensory memory (SM)
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A memory store that holds a large amount of perceptual input for a very brief time, typically less than 1 second
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Short-term memory (STM) (immediate memory)
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A memory store that holds relatively little information (typically 5 to 9 items) for only a few seconds (but perhaps as long as 30 seconds)
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Rehearsal
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The process of repeating information over and over to retain it in STM
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Chunk
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A unit of information, such as a digit, letter, or word
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Working memory (WM)
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The system that includes two specialized STMs (auditory loop and visuospatial sketchpad) and a central executive that operates on information in them to plan, reason, or solve a problem
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Central executive
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The set of processes that operates on information in one or another of two specialized STMs; part of working memory
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Long-term memory (LTM)
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A memory store that holds a huge amount of information for a long time (from hours to years)
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Recency effect
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Increased memory for the last few stimuli in a set
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Code
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A type of mental representation, an internal "re-presentation" (such as in words or images) of a stimulus or event
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Consolidation
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The process of converting information stored dynamically in LTM into a structural change in the brain
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Depth of processing
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The number and complexity of the operations involved in processing information, expressed in a continuum from shallow to deep
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Breadth of processing
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Processing that organizes and integrates information into previously stored information, often by making associations
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Flashbulb memory
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An unusually vivid and accurate memory of a dramatic event
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Semantic memories
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Memories of the meanings of words, concepts, and general facts about the world
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Episodic memories
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Memories of events that are associated with a particular context- a time, place, and circumstance
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Explicit (or declarative) memories
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Memories that can be retrieved at will and represented in STM; verbal and visual memories are explicit if they can be called to mind as words or images
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Implicit (or nondeclarative) memories
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Memories that cannot be voluntarily called to mind, but nevertheless influence behavior or thinking
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Habit
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A well-learned response that is carried out automatically (without conscious thought) when the appropriate stimulus is present
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Cues
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Stimuli that trigger or enhance remembering reminders
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State-dependent retrieval
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Recall that is better if it occurs in the same psychological state that was present when the information was first encoded
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False memories
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Memories of events or situations that did not, in fact, occur
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Source amnesia
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A failure to remember the source of information
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Forgetting curve
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A graphic representation of the rate at which information is forgotten over time: Recent events are recalled better than more distant ones, but most forgetting occurs soon after learning
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Decay
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The fading away of memories with time because the relevant connections between neurons are lost
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Interference
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The disruption of the ability to remember one piece of information by the presence of other information
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Retroactive interference
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Interference that occurs when new learning impairs memory for something learned earlier
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Proactive interference
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Interference that occurs when previous knowledge makes it difficult to learn something new
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Amnesia
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A loss of memory over an entire time span, resulting from brain damage caused by accident, infection, or stroke
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Retrograde amnesia
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Amnesia that disrupts previous memories
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Anterograde amnesia
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Amnesia that leaves consolidated memories intact but prevents new learning
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Repressed memories
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Real memories that have been pushed out of consciousness because they are emotionally threatening
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Mnemonic devices
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Strategies that improve memory, typically by using effective organization and integration
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Language production
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The ability to speak or otherwise use words, phrases, and sentences to convey information
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Language comprehension
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The ability to understand the message conveyed by words, phrases, and sentences
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Phonology
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The structure of the sounds that can be used to produce words in a language
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Phoneme
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The basic building block of speech sounds
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Syntax
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The internal structure of a sentence, determined by a set of rules (grammar) for combining different parts of speech into acceptable arrangements
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Aphasia
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A disruption of language caused by brain damage
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Broca's aphasia
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Problems with producing language following brain damage (typically to the left frontal lobe)
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Wernicke's aphasia
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Problems with comprehending language following brain damage (typicall to the left posterior temporal lobe)
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Semantics
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The meaning of a word or sentence
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Morpheme
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The smallest unit of meaning in a language
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Pragmatics
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The way in which words and sentences in a language convey meaning indirectly, by implying rather than asserting
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Empiricism (approach to language)
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The approach that views language as entirely the result of learning
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Nativism (approach to language)
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The view that people are born with some knowledge
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Language acquisition device (LAD)
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An innate mechanism, hypothesized by Chomsky, that contains the grammatical rules common to all languages and allows language acquisition
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Child-directed speech (CDS)
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Speech by caregivers to babies that relies on shirt sentences with clear pauses, careful enunciation, exaggerated intonation, and a high-pitched voice
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Overextension
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An overly broad use of a word to refer to a new object or situation
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Underextension
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An overly narrow use of a word to refer to a new object or situation
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Grammar
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The set of rules that determines how words canbe organized into an infinite number of acceptable sentences in a language
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Telegraphic speech
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Speech that packs a lot of information into a few words, typically omitting words such as the, a, and of
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Overregularization error
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A mistake that occurs in speech because the child applies a newly learned rule even to cases where it does not apply
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Critical period
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A narrow window of time when a certain type of learning is possible
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Sensitive period
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A window of time when a particular type of learning is easiest, but not the only time it can occur
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Nonverbal communication
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Facial expressions and body language that allow others to infer an individual's internal mental state
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis
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The idea that perceptions and thoughts are shaped by language, and thus people who speak different languages think differently
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Concept
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An unambiguous, sometimes abstract, internal representation that defines a grouping of a set of objects (including living things) or events (including relationships)
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Category
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A grouping in which the members are specific cases of a more general type
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Typicality
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The degree to which an entity is representative of its concept category
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Schema
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A collection of concepts that specify necessary and optional aspects of a particular situation
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Algorithm
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A set of steps that, if followed methodically, will guarantee the solution to a problem
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Heuristic
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A strategy that does not guarantee the correct answer to a problem but offers a likely shortcut to it
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Insight
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A new way to look at a problem that implies the solution
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Incubation
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Processing that occurs when a person is not consciously working on solving a problem and that can lead to improved thinking about the solution
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Artificial intelligence (AI)
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The field devoted to building smart machines
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Confirmation bias
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A tendency to seek information that will confirm a rule, and not to seek information that is inconsistent with the rule
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Representative heuristic
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The heuristic that the more similar something is to a prototype stored in memory, the more likely it is to belong to the prototype's category
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Availability heuristic
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The tendency to judge objects or events as more likely, common, or frequent if they are easier to bring to mind
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Problem
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An obstacle that must be overcome to reach a goal
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Representation problem
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The challenge of how best to formulate the nature of a problem
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Functional fixedness
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When solving a problem, getting stuck on one interpretation of an object or one part of the situation
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Prototype
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The most typical example of a concept category
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