Phrd 307: Anatomy And Physiology [Chpt 03]

Front 1

State the basic ideas of the Cell Theory?

Back 1

Cells are the building blocks of plants and animals.

All cells come from pre-existing cells

Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions

Each cells maintain homeostasis at cellular level

Front 2

Define CYTOLOGY?

Back 2

The study of cellular structure and function

Front 3

What are 2 types of sex/germ/reproductive cells?

Back 3

Sperms of Males

Oocytes of Females

Front 4

What are somatic cells?

Back 4

Somatic cells are body cells, in which all other cell besides the sperm of males and oocytes of females

Front 5

Define PLASMA/CELL MEMBRANE?

Back 5

Plasma/Cell membrane separates the cell content/cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid

Front 6

What roles does PLASMA MEMBRANE play?

Back 6

Separates the inside of the cell from the outside because conditions are different and that is why it is necessary to maintain homeostasis

Regulates the exchange of ions and nutrients

Sensitivity, because it is the first in contact with outside sources

Structural support

Front 7

What is the plasma membrane mainly made up of?

Back 7

Phospholipid bilayer
- Phosphate - hydrophilic
- Lipid - hydrophobic

Front 8

True or False: Water and solutes can cross the lipid portion of the plasma membrane?

Back 8

False, water and solute CANNOT cross the lipid portion of the plasma membrane because the lipid portion is HYDROPHOBIC

Front 9

Define INTEGRAL/TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEIN?

Back 9

Are part of the membrane structure, that spans the width of the membrane and cannot be removed without damaging or destroying the membrane

Front 10

Define PERIPHERAL PROTEIN

Back 10

Are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane and are easily separated from it.

Front 11

Define ANCHORING PROTEIN?

Back 11

Anchoring proteins attach the plasma membrane to other structures and stabilize its position

Front 12

Define ENZYME?

Back 12

Enzymes catalyzes reactions in the extracellular fluid or in the cytosol

Front 13

Define RECEPTOR PROTEINS?

Back 13

Receptor proteins are found in the plasma membrane, in which they are sensitive to the presence of specific extracellular molecules.

Front 14

Describe the relationship of a RECEPTOR PROTEIN and a LIGAND?

Back 14

A receptor protein exposed to an appropriate ligand will bind to it and that binding may trigger changes in the activity of the cell.

Front 15

Define CARRIER PROTEINS?

Back 15

Carrier proteins bind solutes and transport them across the plasma membrane

Front 16

Define CHANNELS?

Back 16

Some integral proteins contain a central pore or channel, that forms a passageway completely across the plasma membrane that permits the movement of water and small solutes across the plasma membrane.

Front 17

Define CHANNELS?

Back 17

Some integral proteins contain a central pore or channel, that forms a passageway completely across the plasma membrane that permits the movement of water and small solutes across the plasma membrane.

Front 18

Define CHANNELS?

Back 18

Some integral proteins contain a central pore or channel, that forms a passageway completely across the plasma membrane that permits the movement of water and small solutes across the plasma membrane.

Front 19

Define Glycoproteins/Glycocalyx?

Back 19

The carbohydrate portions of large molecules extend beyond the outer surface of the membrane....in which is the blue object connected to the glycoproteins

Front 20

What are some important functions of GLYCOCALYX?

Back 20

Lubrication and Protection

Anchoring and Locomotion

Specificity in binding

Recognition

Front 21

Define CYTOSOL?

Back 21

Intracellular fluid

Front 22

Define ORGANELLES?

Back 22

Structures suspended within the cytosol that perform specific functions within the cell

Front 23

Identify differences between the CYTOSOL and EXTRACELLULAR FLUID?

Back 23

[K+] is much higher in the cytosol than in the extracellular fluid.

[Na+] is much lower in the cytosol than in the extracellular fluid.

Cytosol contains a much higher concentration of suspended proteins than extracellular fluid.

Cytosol contains small quantities of carbohydrates and small reserves of amino acids and lipids, whereas the extracellular fluid has NO reserves

Front 24

What are two types of ORGANELLES?

Back 24

Nonmembranous organelles: are not completely enclosed by membranes and all of their components are in direct contact with the cytosol

Membranous: isolated from the cytosol by phospholipid membranes

Front 25

Define CYTOSKELETON?

Back 25

Cytoskeleton provides an internal protein framework that gives the cytoplasm strength and flexibility.

Front 26

Cytoskeleton are typically made of what 3 filaments?

Back 26

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

Front 27

Of the 3 filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which one is the smallest?

Back 27

Microfilaments

Front 28

Microfilaments are compose of what?

Back 28

Actin

Front 29

What are 3 major functions of Microfilaments?

Back 29

Microfilaments anchor the cytoskeleton to integral protein of the plasma membrane

Microfilaments interacting with other proteins can determine the consistency of the cytoplasm.
-Dense microfilaments form gelatinous consistency

-Widely spread microfilaments forms more fluidity

Actin found in microfilaments can interact with the protein myosin to produce active movement of cells

Front 30

What are some functions of INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT?

Back 30

Strengthen the cell and help maintain its shape.

Stabilize the position of organelles

Stabilize the position of the cell with respect to surrounding cells through specialize attachment to the plasma membrane

Front 31

Microtubules are form what?

Back 31

Tubulin

Front 32

What are some functions of MICROTUBULINS?

Back 32

Give cell strength, rigidity, and anchorage.

Assist in cell movement

Move vesicles or organelles with in the cell.

Front 33

What are thick filaments made of?

Back 33

Myosin

Front 34

Where are thick filament found?

Back 34

Muscle cells, where they interact within actin filaments to produce powerful contraction

Front 35

What are MICROVILLI?

Back 35

Microvilli are finger-shaped projections of the plasma membrane on their exposed surface, these microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the cell exposed to the extracellular environment

Front 36

DID NOT PUT NOTES FOR CENTRIOLES AND CENTROSOME

Back 36

DID NOT PUT NOTES FOR CENTRIOLES AND CENTROSOME

Front 37

Which organelles is responsible for protein synthesis?

Back 37

Ribosomes

Front 38

What are the 2 subunits of a functional ribosome?

Back 38

Small ribosomal subunit

Large ribosomal subunit

Front 39

What are the two types of ribosomes?

Back 39

Fixed and Free

Front 40

What are PROTEASOMES?

Back 40

Proteasomes are organelles that contain an assortment of protein digesting enzymes

Front 41

What are PROTEASOMES responsible for?

Back 41

Removing and recycling damage or denatured proteins, and breaking down abnormal proteins.

Front 42

The endoplasmic reticulum is connected to what structure?

Back 42

nuclear envelope

Front 43

What are 4 functions of the ER?

Back 43

Specialized regions of the ER synthesize proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

The ER can store synthesized molecules or materials absorbed from the cytosol

Materials can travel from place to place in the ER

Detoxification: drugs/toxins can be absorbed by the ER and neutralized by enzymes within it

Front 44

What are two types of ER?

Back 44

Smooth
Rough

Front 45

What is the difference between smooth and rough?

Back 45

Smooth refers to the fact that no ribosomes are associated

Rough ER contain ribosomes

Front 46

Which organelles typically consists of five or six flattened membranous discs called cisternae?

Back 46

Golgi Apparatus

Front 47

What is the main function of the GOLGI APPARATUS?

Back 47

MODIFIES AND PACKAGE

Front 48

Typically small vesicles move material from one cisterna to the next, generally arriving first at the ______ and ending at the ______

Back 48

Forming (cis) face

Maturing (trans) face

Front 49

What are 3 types of vesicles that carry materials away from the Golgi apparatus?

Back 49

Secretary vesicles: fuse with the plasma membrane and empty their contents in to the extracellular environment.

Membrane Renewal Vesicles: fuse with the surface of the cell and add lipids and proteins to the membrane causing the membrane to remove and recycled

Lysosomes: contain digestive enzymes

Front 50

Define EXOCYTOSIS?

Back 50

Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and empty their contents in to the extracellular environment

Front 51

Which organelles is responsible for energy production?

Back 51

Mitochondria

Front 52

How many membranes does a Mitochondria have?

Back 52

Two

Outer surrounds the organelles

Inner contain cristae

Front 53

Define Cristae?

Back 53

Cristae are numerous folds in the mitochondria that increase the surface area exposed to the fluid matrix of the mitochondrion

Front 54

What structure separates the nucleus from the cytosol (intracellular fluid)?

Back 54

Nuclear Envelope

Front 55

Is the nuclear envelope single or double layer membrane?

Back 55

Double and is separated by the perinuclear space.

Front 56

In order for the nucleus to direct processes in the cytosol, where does chemical communication between the nucleus and the cytosol take place?

Back 56

Nuclear pores

Front 57

What is the perinuclear space?

Back 57

A space that separates the double membrane layer of the nuclear envelope

Front 58

The fluid contents of the nucleus is call what?

Back 58

Nucleoplasm

Front 59

What role does the NUCLEOLUS play?

Back 59

Synthesize ribosomal RNA

Front 60

When the DNA strands wind around the histone, forming a complex call?

Back 60

Nucleosome

Front 61

Why is it necessary for the DNA strands to wind itself around the histone?

Back 61

Such winding allows a great deal of DNA to be packaged in a small space.

Front 62

Define NUCLEUS?

Back 62

Contains the genetic instructions needed to synthesize the proteins that determine cell structure and function

Front 63

Where does the nucleus stores its genetic information?

Back 63

Chromosomes

Front 64

What keeps the gene inactive?

Back 64

Tightly coiled and histones keep the gene inactive, when the are tightly bound to it.

Front 65

What is the first signal that indicates GENE ACTIVATION?

Back 65

Removal of the histone

Temporary disruption of the weak bonds between the nitrogenous bases of the two DNA strands

Front 66

What signifies the first step in TRANSCRIPTION?

Back 66

Enzyme, RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of the gene

Front 67

Identify the importance of Messenger RNA?

Back 67

DNA cannot leave the nucleus so instead its formation is copied to messenger RNA, which can leave the nucleus and carry the information to the cytoplasm

Front 68

What is TRANSCRIPTION?

Back 68

After the complementary strand separate and RNA polymerases binds, transcription take place and begins to copy the DNA template into RNA

Front 69

Read the Steps in Transcription of mRNA

Back 69

Read the steps in Transcription of mRNA (PAGE 84-85)

Front 70

What is the difference between INTRONS and EXONS?

Back 70

Sometimes gene includes a number of triplets that are not needed to build functional protein, thus the mRNA strand needs to be edited

Introns, nonsense regions are snipped out

Exons, coding segments are splice together

Front 71

What role does anticodon play in translation?

Back 71

Anticodon bonds complementarily with an appropriate mRNA codon.

Front 72

What are the triplets for "START CODON?

Back 72

AUG

Front 73

When does TRANSLATION began?

Back 73

mRNA strands binds to a small ribosomal subunit

Front 74

Read the step for TRANSLATION

Back 74

Read the steps for TRANSLATION on page 86-87

Front 75

Passage across the membrane are in either 2 form, which are?

Back 75

Passive processes move ions or molecules across the plasma membrane with no expenditure of energy by the cell.

Active processes require that the cell expend energy, generally in the form of ATP.

Front 76

What are 3 major transport processes?

Back 76

Diffusion
Carrier Mediated Transport
Vesicular Transport

Front 77

Is diffusion, an active or passive process?

Back 77

Passive

Front 78

What is DIFFUSION?

Back 78

Passive molecular movement from an area of high concentration to an area of lower conentration

Front 79

DIFFUSION tends to eliminate what?

Back 79

concentration gradients

Front 80

What are some factors that can influence diffusion rate?

Back 80

Distance: shorter the distance, increase diffusion

Molecule size: small the molecules, rapid diffusion

Temperature: higher temperature, faster diffusion

Gradient size: larger the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion proceeds.

Electrical forces: interior of plasma membrane is a net negative, therefore tends to attract positive molecules...rapid diffusion

Front 81

Define OSMOSIS?

Back 81

The net diffusion of water across a membrane

Front 82

In OSMOSIS, water flows across a membrane toward the solution that has the _______ concentration of ______ because this is where the concentration of ________ is lower?

Back 82

Higher
Solute
Water

Front 83

Define OSMOTIC PRESSURE?

Back 83

The greater the initial difference in solute concentrations, the stronger is the osmotic flow.

Osmotic pressure of a solution is an indication of the force with which pure water moves into that solution as a result of its solute concentration

Front 84

What is the difference between osmolarity and tonicity?

Back 84

Osmolarity refers to the solute concentration of the solution

Tonicity is a description of how the solution effects the cell.

Front 85

If a red blood cell is hypotonic, what will happen?

Back 85

Water will flow into the cell, causing it to swell up

More water located extracellularly but more solute inside the cell, thus the water must diffuse inside

Front 86

If a red blood cell is hypertonic, what will happen?

Back 86

Will will flow out of the cell and cause it to shrink

More water molecules located inside and more solute outside, thus water must diffuse outside

Front 87

Define Carrier Mediate Transport?

Back 87

Carrier mediate transport requires the presence of specialized integral membrane proteins that binds specific ion or organic substrates and carry them across the plasma membrane

Front 88

Is carrier mediate transport a passive or active transport?

Back 88

Both, because it depends on the substance transported and the nature of the transport mechanism.

Front 89

Define Vesicular transport?

Back 89

Vesicular transport involves the movement of materials within small membranous sac (vesicles).

Front 90

Is vesicular transport active or passive transport?

Back 90

Active

Front 91

What are some characteristics of Carrier Mediated Transport?

Back 91

Specificity: each carrier protein in the plasma membrane will bind and transport only certain substances.

Saturation Limits: when all available carrier proteins are operating at maximum speed, the carrier are said to be saturated and cannot increase transportation any further.

Regulation: Hormones can affect the activity of carrier proteins thus it is an important means of coordinating carrier protein activity throughout the body

Front 92

Define COTRANSPORT/SYMPORT?

Back 92

The carrier transports two substances in the same direction simultaneously, either into or out of the cell.

Front 93

Define COUNTERTRANSPORT/ANTIPORT?

Back 93

One substance moves into the cell and the other moves out

Front 94

Give some examples of CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT?

Back 94

Facilitated diffusion
Active Transport

Front 95

Describe the process of how facilitated diffusion transport glucose into the cytoplasm?

Back 95

Glucose must first bind to a receptor site on the protein. The protein will then change shape and move glucose across the plasma membrane where it meets a carrier protein and release it into the cytoplasm.

Front 96

What is the difference between CHANNEL MEDIATED DIFFUSION and FACILITATED DIFFUSION?

Back 96

Unlike channel mediated diffusion, once the carrier proteins are saturated, the rate of transport cannot increase regardless of further increase in the concentration gradient.

Front 97

What is an advantage of ACTIVE TRANSPORT compare to any other transports?

Back 97

Not dependent on a concentration gradient as a result the cells can import/export specific substrates, regardless of the intracellular or extracellular concentrations.

Front 98

What is one disadvantage of ACTIVE TRANSPORT?

Back 98

Expends a lot of energy

Front 99

What are ION PUMPS?

Back 99

Carrier proteins that transport additional cations (+)

Front 100

What are the two major cations found in the body fluids? Which one is found mainly in the extracellular? Which one is found mainly intracellular?

Back 100

Sodium – extracellular
Potassium – intracellular

Front 101

Describe the Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump?

Back 101

Exchanges sodium that are located intracellular and move them outside.

Whereas potassium that are located outside are exchange and move inside

Front 102

What are two main categories of VESICULAR TRANSPORT?

Back 102

Endocytosis
Exocytosis

Front 103

Define ENDOCYTOSIS?

Back 103

A process where extracellular materials can be packaged in vesicles at the cell surface and imported into the cell

Front 104

What are 3 major types of ENDOCYTOSIS?

Back 104

Receptor –mediated endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis

Front 105

What are the differences of Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis, Pinocytosis, and Phagocytosis?

Back 105

Receptor –mediated endocytosis: selective and the targets are ligands; produces endosomes

Pinocytosis (cell drinking) – not selective and the target is usually some fluid; produces endosomes

Phagocytosis (cell eating) – not selective and target is solidify materials; produces phagosomes

Front 106

Define EXOCYTOSIS?

Back 106

Exocytosis is when a vesicle created inside the cell fuses with the plasma membrane and discharges its contents into the extracellular environment

Front 107

What is TRANSMEMBRANE POTENTIAL?

Back 107

Transmembrane potential occurs because the insides of cells are slightly negative charge, but outside the cell there is a slight positive charge. Normal these two opposite charge would rush together, however they are separated by the phospholipid bilayer and thus produce a potential difference across the membrane

Front 108

What is RESTING POTENTIAL?

Back 108

Resting potential is when the transmembrane potential in a cell is undisturbed….-10 mV

Front 109

What is cell division?

Back 109

The division of a sing cell produces a pair of daughter cell, each half the size of the original.

Front 110

What terms is identify as the genetically controlled death of cells?

Back 110

Apoptosis

Front 111

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

Back 111

Mitosis is the division of somatic cells, whereas meiosis is the production of sex cells

Front 112

What occur in interphase of Mitosis?

Back 112

Normal functions and prepared to divide

Front 113

G1, S, and G2, are phases found in which of mitosis?

Back 113

Interphase

Front 114

In which phase, G1, S, or G2, does the cell get ready to be divided?

Back 114

G1

Front 115

What happens in G1?

Back 115

Development of organelles
Centrioles replicate

Front 116

What happens in the S phase of mitosis?

Back 116

DNA replication

Front 117

What purpose does DNA polymerase served?

Back 117

As the double stranded DNA unwinds by enzyme helicases, DNA polymerase bind to the exposed nitrogenous bases, in which it promotes binding between the nitrogenous bases of the DNA strand.

Front 118

What happens during G2 phase?

Back 118

Last minute protein synthesis and completion of centriole replication

Front 119

What happens after G2 phase is complete?

Back 119

Mitosis occurs

Front 120

List the stages mitosis?

Back 120

Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Front 121

Describe what will happen during Prophose of Mitosis

Back 121

Chromosomes coil so tightly that they become visible.

Nucleoli disappear

2 Pair of centrioles move to opposite poles of the nucleus

Nuclear envelope disappears

Front 122

Describe what will happen during Prophose of Mitosis

Back 122

Chromatids move to a narrow central zone called the metaphase

Front 123

Describe what will happen during Anaphase of Mitosis

Back 123

Chromatids pair splits and pulled to opposite ends.

Front 124

Describe what will happen during Telophase of Mitosis

Back 124

Nuclear membrane reforms
Chromosomes gradually uncoil

Front 125

What is another word for tumor?

Back 125

Neoplasm

Front 126

Between benign and malignant tumor, which one is more severe?

Back 126

Malignant