Phonology Week 3

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Phonetics

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-is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign.
-It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.

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Historical phonetics

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the study of how sounds change over time.

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Experimental phonetics

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the study of speech sound production to analyze physiological movements and acoustic properties with the help of laboratory instruments.

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Articulatory phonetics

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the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker

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Acoustic phonetics

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the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener

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Auditory (perceptual) phonetics

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the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener

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Clinical (applied) phonetics

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dedicated to the practical application of the knowledge derived from experimental, articulatory, acoustic, and perceptual phonetics.

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phoneme

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is a basic unit of a language's phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. The phoneme can be described as "The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning".

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morpheme

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-is the smallest grammatical unit in a language
-is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding.
-Every word comprises one or more of these

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Free Morpheme

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can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes (e.g. town hall, doghouse)

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Bound Morpheme

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appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word

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most bound morphemes in English are this

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-most are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes, examples of suffixes are: tion, ation, ible, ing, etc.

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Bound morphemes that are not affixes are called

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cranberry morphemes

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Minimal Pairs

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pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, which differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme

dime time [d] and [t]
rot lot [r] and [l]
zeal seal [z] and [s]
rhyme time [r] and [t]
meal meet [l] and [t]
feet seat [f] and [s]

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purpose of minimal pair

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find out the distinctive sounds

contrastive distribution: [bit] vs [but] and [pit] vs [bit]

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3 requirements for identifying minial pairs

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1. different in meaning
2. only one phoneme different
3. different phonemes occr in same phonetic environment (eg. pat vs fat)

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allophone

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is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, [p] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language

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Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophone selected in a given situation is often

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is often predictable when selected in given situation

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Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound

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may sound non-native or intelligible when this happens to a given phoneme

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Native speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to

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are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes

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To determine the phonemic status of 2 sounds (label)

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consonant

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is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are [p], pronounced with the lips; [t], pronounced with the front of the tongue; [k], pronounced with the back of the tongue; [h], pronounced in the throat; [f] and [s], pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and [m] and [n], which have air flowing through the nose (nasals)

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vowel

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-is a sound in spoken language, such as an English ah! [ɑ] or oh! [oʊ], pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis
-is also understood to be syllabic

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syllabic

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an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel.

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semivowel (or glide)

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is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/, that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.

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monophthong

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is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation

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diphthong literally "two sounds" or "two tones"), also known as a gliding vowel, refers to

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-refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable
-is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. For most dialects of English, the phrase "no highway cowboys" contains five distinct diphthongs

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OPEN OR CLOSED?

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-depends on whether or not a vowel is followed by a consonant. A vowel followed by a consonant is called a closed syllable; if not followed by a consonant, it is an open syllable
-The key is to look for where the vowel falls in a syllable to determine whether it is open or closed. For example, the word go has only one syllable ending in a vowel. Therefore it would be considered an open syllable. The word cat ends with a consonant and would be classified as a closed syllable.

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Prevocalic: Initial position

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1. Preceding a vowel.
2. Of or relating to a form of a linguistic element, such as a suffix, prefix, or word, that occurs only before a vowel.

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Intervocalic: Medial position

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A consonant that occurs in the middle of a word, between two vowels.

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Postvocalic: Final position

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1. Designating a consonant or consonantal sound directly following a vowel.
2. Of, relating to, or being a form of a linguistic element, such as a suffix or word, that occurs only after vowels

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Releasing vs Arresting

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Releasing: sounds that initiate a syllable

Arresting: sounds that terminate a syllable

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SYLLABLES

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-Vowels alone can form words (e.g. eye, you). Vowels are the nucleus of syllables.
-Consonants alone cannot form syllables or words; they need vowels to form these.

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Onset

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consonant or cluster that initiates the syllable

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Nucleus

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vowel that follows the onset

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Coda

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consonant that follows the nucleus

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Rhyme

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nucleus + coda that follows onset

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place, manner, and voice

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PLACE: where along the vocal tract the consonant is formed

MANNER: how the consonant is formed

VOICE: whether the vocal cords are vibrating

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Bilabial

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mutual contact of upper & lower lip

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Labiodental

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upper front teeth over lower lip

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Linguadental

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tongue tip between upper & lower lip (interdental)

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Alveolar

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tongue tip against alveolar ridge (lingua- alveolar)

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Palatal

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tongue blade against hard palate (linguapalatal)

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Velar

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tongue dorsum against velum (linguavelar)

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Glottal

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vibration of air at level of vocal folds

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examples of placement

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Stops

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complete closure of the vocal tract so that airflow stops & air pressure builds up behind the point of closure. Released air pressure produces a short burst of noise. Air stream may be stopped by bilabial, alveolar, or velar closure. Rapid and short duration.

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Fricatives

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continuous forcing of air through a narrow constriction. The intensity depends on the sound place. Hissing or turbulent quality.

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Affricates

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stop & fricative component; begin as stops and released as fricatives.

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Nasals

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closed oral tract and open velopharyngeal port. Produced like stops.

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Glides

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quick transitioning of the articulators as they move from a partly constricted state to a more open state for the vowel that follows. Produced more like diphthongs. (semivowel)

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Liquids

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similar to glides with slightly obstructed vocal tract.
Lateral: midsection of tongue is open
Rhotic: curling or bunching the tongue

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examples of manner

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Voiced vs voiceless sounds

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Voiced sounds: vocal cords are vibrating

Voiceless sounds: absence of vocal cord vibration

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Cognitive pairs

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manner & place are same; difference is in voicing

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distinctive feature

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is an acoustic or articulatory parameter that according to its presence or absence helps define a phoneme

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USES FOR DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

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-To specify a phoneme
-To specify a class of phonemes
-To describe the set of speech sounds used in a particular language or dialect
-To write concise rules of phonetic change
-To characterize a speech disorder – e.g. substitution, often involving a change of feature
-Features are binary (+ or - values)
-Each speech sound may be described as a “bundle” of features
-Each member of every pair of phones is distinguished from the other member by at least one feature value
-Features are universal, but a given language may use a subset of features as distinctive

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FEATURES

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Vocalic
Consonantal
Sonorant
Advanced (vowels and diphthongs)
Front (vowels)
Coronal
Anterior (consonants)
High
Low
Back
Rounded
Distributed
Nasal
Lateral
Continuant/Stop
Tense (vowels)
Voiced/voiceless
Strident

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look at chart in book

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look at chart in book

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REDUNDANCY RULES

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All vowels in English are [+ Voiced]
All [-Voiced] sounds are [+Consonantal],
[-Nasal], [-Sonorant] and [-Vocalic]
[+Anterior] sounds are [-Distributed]
Sounds that are both [-Continuant] and [+Anterior] are [-Strident]
[-Coronal] sounds are [-Lateral]

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consonant clusters

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two or more consonatns in sequence without any vowels between them

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phonotactic constraints

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-the rules that characterize permissible syllable structures in a language

1. after consonants like /b, g, k, p/ another stop is not permitted
2. If a word begins with /l, r/. Every speaker knows the next letter will be a vowel.
3. if word begins with /c/ or /j/. The next letter will be a vowel.
4. no more than 3 consonants allowed. Even this restricted to /s/+/p,t,k/+/r,w,y/

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phonotactics

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study of the sound and phoneme combinations allowed in a given language

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Phonotactic Constraints in English

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vowels are described by IPA using 3 dimensions of

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closeness/height, frontness, rounding

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closeness

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position of mandible (op-clo category)
height refers to vertical position of tongue towards palatal area (high-low)

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frontness

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horizontal position of tongue in relation to front of back of mouth

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rounding

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position of lips during production of vowel

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Vowel Placement (chart)

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other aspects (physical dimensions) of describing vowel sounds based on

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tenseness (tense-lax), closeness of syllables (open-closed syllables), length (long-short)

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diphthongs

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are two-part vowel sounds consisting of transition from one vowel to another
ex. ai, bai

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Dynamics of Speech Production

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Speech is a dynamic rather than a static phenomenon
the articulators are in a state of constant movement during speech

Individual speech sounds are described in terms of target positions; ongoing speech is better thought of in terms of movement

Sounds in a word don’t follow each other like printed letters

spoken sounds overlap with each other
this is referred to as CO-ARTICULATION

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Co-articulation

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as the articulators are in the process of forming one sound, their positioning prepares them for the sound that follows
speech sounds influence and are influenced by other sounds within a phonetic environment
the dynamic nature of speech means that we are planning events before they occur
we may articulate one segment before completing another
we may be as much as several segments ahead or behind in our motor activity

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why is co-articulation important?

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Important clinically because a client cannot simply be taught to pronounce a given sound in one simple way
need to provide practice in a variety of phonetic environments
Examples of co-articulation
/iki/ - point of artic for /k/ is more forward (palatal) than velar
/ uku/ - point of artic for /k/ is more posterior (uvular) than velar
/aka/ - point of artic for /k/ is actually velar
sneeze ~ snooze; see ~ Sue

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Why do we have co-articulation?

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There are too many demands on the speech mechanism than there is time to fulfill them
normal conversation is produced at a rate of between 10-20 segments/second which implies a maximum of 100msec/segment

It is true that dialects and registers of speech (formal vs informal) differ in the amount of coarticulation that can be made
non-native speakers want to learn this allowable accommodations in order to sound more normal
the second language learner often has a hypercorrect pronunciation that sounds strange because it lacks the usual shortcuts that native speakers take
Need to distinguish co-articulation from assimilation
co-articulation means that 2 different sounds were being articulated simultaneously one tongue movement was made for both sounds

however, it takes much longer than this to complete any speech gesture and then return to the starting point
THEREFORE, something has to give -- thus, compromise gestures are made

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Assimilation

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Refers to changes that cross phonemic boundaries and results in a major phonetic change
The resulting change is to a different sound (phoneme)
Co-articulation results in non-phonemic differences
In assimilation, there is a major change in the place of articulation, manner of articulation, or voicing of a segment, such that it falls into a different phonemic category
Examples of assimilation
I miss you; got you; had you; phone booth

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TYPES OF ASSIMILATION (DIRECTION OF ACCOMMODATION)

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Regression assimilation - a particular sound influences the sound immediately preceding it
EX: miss you
also referred to anticipatory, or right-to-left assimilation
Progressive assimilation - a given sound produces changes in the sound that follows
EX: cats dogs
left-to-right assimilation

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Other Combinatory Phenomena

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Elision (ellipsis) - when a segment or several segments are left out of a word when it is pronounced dialectal differences in elision, e.g., “interesting”, “secretary”

Epenthesis - the insertion of a sound, generally to break up consonant clusters or to provide a transition between sounds

Metathesis - when two adjacent segments are reversed
EX: “ask” [æks]
dialectal metathesis

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WHAT ARE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES?

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-are patterns of sound errors that typically developing children use to simplify speech as they are learning to talk.
-They do this because they don’t have the ability to coordinate the lips, tongue, teeth, palate and jaw for clear speech.
-As a result they simplify complex words in predictable ways until they develop the coordination required to articulate clearly.
-For example, they may reduce consonant clusters to a single consonant like, “pane” for “plane” or delete the weak syllable in a word saying, “nana” for “banana.”
-There are many different patterns of simplifications or phonological processes.

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What is a phonological disorder?

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-These processes are considered normal unless they persist beyond the age when most typically developing children have stopped using them. For example if your 4 year old still uses the phonological process of “reduplication” (saying, “wawa” for “water”) that would be considered delayed since most children stop using that process by the time they turn 3.
-A phonological delay may also be considered if the processes the child is using are different than what would be expected. For example, if your child leaves all of the beginning sounds off of his/her words it would be considered a delay since “initial consonant deletion” is not common in typical development.

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The excessive use of phonological processes can also indicate a phonological disorder because when multiple phonological processes are exhibited together it usually

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it usually increases the child’s unintelligibility making them really difficult to understand. As a result, if you have a highly unintelligible child they’re likely to have a phonological delay, and their phonological skills should be assessed when considering a treatment plan.

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The standard guideline is by 2 years old a child should be

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should be 50% intelligible to an unfamiliar listener. By 3 years old they should be 75% intelligible to an unfamiliar listener and by 4-5 years old they should be close to 100% intelligible to an unfamiliar listener even if a few articulation errors are still present in their speech.

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A speech sound disorder is considered an articulation disorder when:

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-Speech sound errors persist beyond what is developmentally appropriate. Refer to the Speech -Sound Development Chart for details.
-A child is mild to moderately unintelligible
-Children with an articulation disorder typically respond well to a traditional articulation therapy approach where one sound is targeted at a time

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Speech Sound Development

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a speech sound disorder is considered a phonological disorder when:

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-Phonological processes persist beyond the typical age of development. You can refer to the -Phonological Processes Chart for details.
-Phonological processes are used that are not seen in typical development
-A child is highly unintelligible due to the excessive use of phonological processes

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Final Consonant Deletion

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is the deletion of the final consonant or consonant cluster
in a syllable or word.
Ex: “soap” is pronounced “sew” “pig” is pronounced “pi”

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Cluster Reduction

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is the deletion of one or more consonants from a two or three consonant cluster.
Ex: “spot” is pronounced “pot”; “clown” is pronounced “cown”

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Syllable Reduction

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is the deletion of a syllable from a word containing two or more
syllables. The deletion usually occurs in the unstressed syllable.
Ex: “computer” is pronounced “puter”

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Gliding

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occurs when /r/ becomes /w/ or /l/ becomes /w/ or /j/.
Ex: “rail” is pronounced “whale” ; “leap” is pronounced “weep”

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Vocalization

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occurs when one of the following, /l/, //, or //, is replaced by a more neutral vowel.
Ex: “seal” is pronounced “sio” ; “computer” /kəmpjut/ is pronounced “computa”

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Fronting (Velar and Palatal)

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is the substitution of sounds in the front of the mouth, usually alveolars, for velar or palatal sounds.
Ex: “key” /ki/ is pronounced “tea” /ti/; “gate” /get/ is pronounced “date” /det/

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Deaffrication

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is the deletion of a stop component from an affricate leaving only the continuant aspect.
Ex: “cheese” /iz/ is pronounced “sheese” ; “jar” is pronounced “zhar”

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Stopping

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is the substitution of a stop consonant for a fricative or an affricate.
Ex: “sail” is pronounced “tail” “knife” /naif/ is pronounced “knipe”

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syllable structure processes

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Final Consonant Deletion
Cluster Reduction
Syllable Reduction

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Substition Processes

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Gliding
Vocalization
Fronting
Deaffrication
Stopping

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Assmilation Processes

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Prevocalic Voicing
Postvocalic Devoicing

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Prevocalic Voicing

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is the voicing of an initial voiceless consonant in a word.
Ex: “peach” is pronounced “beach”

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Postvocalic Devoicing

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is the devoicing of a final voiced consonant in a word.
Ex: “bag” is pronounced “back”

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AERODYNAMICS

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-Air supply is essential for speech production
-Physiological valving (vocal folds, VP mechanism, constriction of oral cavity and lips) effect airflow, volume, and pressure.

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ACOUSTICS

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-Scientific study of sound as a physical phenomenon
-Frequency: rate at which an object vibrates; variations create variations in perceived pitch
-Amplitude/Intensity: magnitude of vibration of a sound source; greater magnitude=higher amplitude
-Duration: measure of time during which vibrations are sustained.

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Pitch

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sensory experience related to frequency of vibration; effects meaning and gives speech melodic quality.

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Stress

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gives prominence to certain syllables within a sequence of syllables; stressed syllables are higher in intensity and pitch and longer in duration.

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Rate

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increased by decreasing pauses and durations of vowels and longer consonants.

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Juncture

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used to make semantic and grammatical distinctions; includes brief pauses in speech.