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174 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Analogy |
A partial similarity. Something predictable of two or more things in some respects, different in others. |
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Analogy and models act as what.... |
Analogy and models act as a bridge from our existing knowledge to new knowledge. |
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Doubt |
The conflict between what we think we know and a new subject we are about to learn |
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Socratic method |
Same as Elenchus - involves two people, one asks questions and the other answers |
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Elenchus |
Same as Socratic method. Involves two people, one asks questions and the other answers |
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Fixed belief |
Peirce's term for knowledge. What we believe to be true. |
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Forms |
Plato thought forms were eternal truths, or bits of knowledge that humans use to help them understand the world. |
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Foundational questions |
Questions that get to the bottom of things. Nature of right and wrong, Character of the good life. |
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Questions such as those about the nature of right and wrong, or the character of the good life are? |
Foundational questions |
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What is a habit? |
A learned instinct |
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A learned instinct is called ---- |
a habit |
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Instinctive Man |
A person shut up within his private interests and does not consider the outside world. |
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A person shut up within his private interests and does not consider the outside world. |
Instinctive Man |
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Inborn instincts |
Knowledge with which we are born |
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Knowledge with which we are born |
Inborn instincts |
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Acquired instincts |
The set of learned instincts |
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The set of learned instincts |
Acquired instincts |
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Unreasoned instincts |
"common sense" good for some things, but can get us in trouble if used incorrectly. |
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What kind of instincts would common sense be called? |
Unreasoned instincts |
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Learning |
The passage from fixed belief, habits or presumed 'already knowns' - to doubt - to new beliefs |
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Metaphysics |
The study of the foundations of reality |
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What is the pratical man? |
Measures what is valuable by utility only |
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Measures what is valuable by utility only |
The practical man |
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Reasonable |
Implies the capacity or potential for reason. |
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Reasoned |
Reason has been brought into play |
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Self control |
When we try to align our beliefs with their corresponding realities |
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When we try to align our beliefs with their corresponding realities |
Self control |
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Structural similarity |
An example would be the study of microorganisms - moved to the germ theory of disease |
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Tyranny of custom |
defines us narrowly. Limits our concerns to what is useful |
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defines us narrowly. Limits our concerns to what is useful |
Tyranny of custom |
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Vitally important topics |
Unreasoned actions, instinct to survie |
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Unreasoned actions, instinct to survie |
Vitally important topics |
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Analogies and models act as.... |
a bridge from our existing knowledge to new knowledge. |
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When do we use common sense? |
We use common sense when we have to act quickly, without reasoning, when vital topics are involved. |
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Ways to evaluate an argument? |
Alternative explainations, counterexamples, appeals to common sense, clarifying definitions |
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Philosophy is about... |
... figuring out what questions to ask |
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Philosophy is totally subjective? T/F |
F |
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Plato said a state can never be properly governed by.. |
Educated who know nothing of truth or by men who are allowed to spend all their days in persuit of culture. The ignorant have no single mark before their eyes |
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Plato said, education is not... |
Plato said education is not what it is said to be by some, who profess to put knowledge into a soul which does not poss it, as if they could put signt into blind eyes." |
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Plato thought the prison dwelling corresponded to... |
the region revealed to us through the sense of sight |
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Plato said the fire light within the cave corresponds to |
the power of the sun |
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Plato said the journy to the upper world |
is the journey of the soul into the region of the intelligible |
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Name two things Plato said could confuse men |
The change from darkness to light, and the change from light to darkness |
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Bertrand Russell said all acquicsition of knolwedge.... |
is the enlargement of self |
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Who said all acquisition of knowledge is the enlargement of self? |
Bertrand Russell |
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Why did Bertrand Russell say Philosophy did not have the same achievements of other sciences? |
Because once an answer is reached, it becomes |
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Who said philosophy has not reached definite answers to questions because once that happens, the topic becomes its own science? |
Bertrand Russell |
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The first western philosophers were called? |
presocretics |
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Who were the presocretics? |
The first western philophers |
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What did Socretes believe were the most important questions one could ask? |
Questions about human life and how it should be lived, not those about nature. |
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Who felt questions about human life and how it should be lived were the most important questions? |
Socretes |
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What two words make up the word philsophy? |
Philios meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. It originally meant love of wisdom |
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Deductive reasoning can bring___ Inductive reasoning can bring ___ |
Deductive reasoning can bring certain truth, inductive reasoning can bring probilities |
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___ can bring certain truth, ____ can bring probilities. |
Deductive reasoning can bring certain truth, inductive reasoning can bring probilities |
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Peirce said there are three things which underlie all of our acquisition of knowledge |
1) Does it yield absolute certaintity or probibility 2) Do we/should we depend objective evidence 3) Do we employ fixed, rote procedures or pragmatic ones? |
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Which do we use more often, reasoned or unreasoned knowledge? |
Reasoned |
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Unreasoned knowledge can be divided into what two divisions? |
Inborn instincts and acquired instincts |
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____ can be divided into Inborn instincts and acquired instincts |
Unreasoned knowledge |
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Peirce said it is ----- which make up the substance of the soul. |
Instincts, the sentiments |
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Who called the conflict between what we know and don't know doubt? |
Peirce |
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Pierce named two features of habits. What are they? |
They seem to be involuntary, they can be changed or modified |
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Our habits and the world meet at what point? |
where our knowledge forms |
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What is learned in a belief-doubt method? |
knowledge |
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The person who escapes the cave represents |
The person who recognizes the forms |
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a priori knowledge |
We need only to reason, or use mental ability, to know it |
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a posteriori |
We must do some experiments, we must experience it to know it |
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The Philipian jailer used... |
Acquired, nonrational insight |
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Ad Hominen attack |
argument appeals to prejudice by attacking a person's character rather than by mounting any objective evidence against that person's contentions |
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APPEAL TO EMOTION |
An appeal to subjective emotion rather than an exibition of actual evidence |
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APPEAL TO THE MOB |
Accpeting uninformed consensus as legitimate sources |
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ARGUMENT |
A process by which a claim is made about something and, more importantly, is backed up or supported by relevant evidence |
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ARGUMENT FROM AUTHORITY |
Accpeting an illegitmate authority |
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ARGUMENT FROM IGNORANCE |
each arguer cites in favor of his or her conclusion the fact that no convincing evidence of the opposit conclusion has been put forward. |
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CONCLUSION |
The claim made by an argument |
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EPISTEMOLOGY |
The theory of knowledge, study of knowledge |
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The theory of knowledge, study of knowledge |
EPISTEMOLOGY |
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FAILURE TO PREDESIGNATE |
The lack of definite, testable hypothesis |
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FALLACY |
Means error |
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FORMAL FALLACY |
Violations of the logical limits of a standardized form or pattern of deductive reasoning |
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GOLDEN MOUNTAIN |
Hume said if you think of Golden Mountain, you have compiled two concepts you already have sensed |
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HYPOTHETICAL ARGUMENT |
The argument contains if-then. |
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INFORMAL FALLACY |
Concern basic questions about the relevance of the evidence offered in support of some conclusion |
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INSTINCT |
An example of non-rationality |
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KNOWLEDGE |
Traditionally philosophers defined it as justified true belief - Readings |
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NONRATIONAL |
Reasoning, good or bad, is left out all together. An example is instinct. |
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NONRATIONAL INSIGHT |
Fixation of belief in an acquisitive manner. Three examples are genuine religious experience, private emotional states, and profound moments of 'aha' |
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Three examples are genuine religious experience, private emotional states, and profound moments of 'aha' |
NONRATIONAL INSIGHT |
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OBJECTIVE CONCLUSION |
Although discovered by human minds and human reason, it is independent of us, or real. All investigators should come to the same conclusions when presented with the same evidence |
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PREMISE |
The relevant evidence in an argument |
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REASONING |
The process that should link relevant evidence to a relevant conclusion |
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The process that should link relevant evidence to a relevant conclusion |
REASONING |
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RATIONAL |
When we reach objective conclusions |
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BELIEF |
a calm state of mind we wish to stay in, it guides our desires and actions. |
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a calm state of mind we wish to stay in, it guides our desires and actions. |
BELIEF |
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DEDUCTION |
use general principles, either derived by induction or asserted as universal postulates, to determine the properties of specific items or to assign them to clases. |
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DOUBT |
an uneasy state that we struggle to be free of. It stimulates us to act to move to a state of belief. This struggle is called "inquiry." |
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an uneasy state that we struggle to be free of. It stimulates us to act to move to a state of belief. This struggle is called "inquiry." |
DOUBT |
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GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF INFERENCE |
For example, we notice that a disk of copper acts a certain way around a magnet. The guiding principle is that what is true of one piece of copper is true of another. |
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HABIT OF MIND |
We are led to inferences by our habit of mind, |
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IDOLS |
Francis Bacon described preconceptions we bring to our studies as idols |
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IDOLS OF THE TRIBE |
Foundation is in human nature. Man co-mingles his own nature with nature, distorting it. |
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Foundation is in human nature. Man co-mingles his own nature with nature, distorting it. |
IDOLS OF THE TRIBE |
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IDOLS OF THE CAVE |
are the idols of the individual man. This includes his own individual nature, how he was brought up, books he reads, how his environment affects him. |
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are the idols of the individual man. This includes his own individual nature, how he was brought up, books he reads, how his environment affects him. |
IDOLS OF THE CAVE |
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IDOLS OF THE MARKET PLACE |
There are also idols formed by men’s agreements and Also individual languages |
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There are also idols formed by men’s agreements and |
IDOLS OF THE MARKET PLACE |
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IDOLS OF THE THEATRE |
Come into men's minds from various philosophical dogmas and laws of demonstration |
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INDUCTION |
The business of prediction and probability, the business that brings us to the point in our knowledge where deduction elimination of mistakes and errors can occure |
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INDUCTIVE REASONING |
Carley gave an example, Bacon took collections of facts, from his lists he derived general properties of heat. This is purely theoretical induction or inductive reasoning. |
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INDUCTION BY SIMPLE ENUMERATION |
Involves analogy, generalization, and prediction. |
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INQUIRY |
THE STRUGGLE TO RELEIVE THE IRRITATION OF DOUBT AND ACHIEVE BELIF. Its sole object is the settlement of opinion. |
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IRRITATION OF DOUBT |
The irritation to get rid of doubt and achieve belief, like an irritated nerve, it wants relief. |
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METHOD OF SCIENCE |
Based on objective evidence. There are real things whose characters are entirely independent of our opinions about them. Greater than the method a prori. |
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Name four methods of reasoning |
Method of... Tenacity, authority, a priori, science |
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METHOD OF AUTHORITY |
Enforced teachings from government |
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METHOD OF TENACITY |
refusing to consider anything that contradicts a currently held belief. |
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PARADIGM |
Kuhn said is a scientific concept so global and new that it generates whole new sets of problems. The current paradigm will be overthrown and replaced with the new. |
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REASONING |
The process of finding out, from something we know (a premise,) something else that we do not know (a conclusion.) |
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD |
A series of steps that impose rigor and logic on science. from a set of observations, we generate a hypothesis, conduct experiments, then eliminate or strenghten our hypothesis. |
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SYSTEMATIC DOUBT |
Descartes winnowing technic of eliminating belief he could reasonabally doubt. |
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SYLLOGISM, deductive |
Demand a definite choice between two alternatives (either/or) has two, and only two, valid forms. H v M ~H so M / or H v M ~M so H - Second premise is ALWAYS negative and cancels out one of the premises. |
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SYLLOGISM, hypothetical or conditional |
If rain then wet street / if wet street then slippery street / therefore if rain then slippery. shortened: If a then b. If b then C. Therefore if a then c. |
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SYLLOGISM, MODUS PONENS |
A conditional syllogism with a positive consequent. - A sufficient condition. If an arguer says only a certain sufficient condition would return positive, that person commits the formal falacy of denying the antecedent. |
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SYLLOGISM, MODUS TOLLENS |
A conditional syllogism with a negative consequent. - A necessary condition. clouds are not a sufficient condition for rain. They are a necessary condition. To claim so is to commit the formal fallacy of affirming the consequent. |
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Induction argument does not |
not demand quite the same degree of precision in thier placement as that required in deduction |
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The realization of a sufficient condition expressed as the antecedent of an argument in modus ponens, |
will cause the appearance of the consequential effect. |
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The lack of realization of a necessary condition, expressed as the consequent of an arguent in modus tollens |
will prevent the appearance of its antecedent companion. |
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In the valid form of a hypothetical syllogism, the first term of the first premise |
returns as the first term of the conclusion. The second term of the second premise returns as the second term of the conclusion. |
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The form of disjunctive syllogism allows for, but is not limited to |
the theoretical and practical resolution of a contradiction, like the paring of incompatible statements. |
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Peirce said the object of reasoning is |
is to find out, from considering things we already know, something which we do not know |
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Bacon said we need to get rid of idols, what are they? |
baggage, which prevents us from seeing things as they actually are |
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Bacon believed that rationalists error with the treatment of a theory was... |
They come up with a theory, then try to make nature fit that theory. |
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Bacon believed rationalists used |
used Anticipation of Nature, starting with axioms (big universal truths) and arriving at middle axioms (more paticular truths) - Video 2 on Bacon |
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Bacon believed in Interpretation of Nature. what is it? |
He said this the true way to work science is to start with particular examples (data) to develop middle axioms and eventually foundational axioms. |
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Bacon said Man's knowledge is limited to |
limited to what can be observed. He sides slightly with rationalists in that he said our 'naked hands' can only do so much. |
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Bacon believed Aristotle did not |
Bacon believed Aristotle did not have a sense of science. Bacon said science should be seporate from philosophy. |
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Peirce and Bacon say there is an ethical aspect of epistomology, explain |
Peirce and Bacon say there is an ethical aspect of epistomology in that we need to be open and not emotionally attached to a worldview |
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C.S. Peirce is the founder of |
C.S. Peirce is the founder of pragmatism who favored the method of science. |
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Thomas Kuhn believed that a paradigm |
Thomas Kuhn believed that a paradigm was not possible under the control of an unchanging God. |
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Galileo said that science and religion should divorce ... |
Galileo said that science and religion should divorce - The purpose of the sacred writings is the salvation of the souls, not the accurate descriptions of the natural sciences. |
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Modern science might well be said to have begun with |
Modern science might well be said to have begun with Aristotle. Science sprouted out of natural philosophy which included religion, true philosophy and science. |
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Aristotle believed that everything in nature had |
Aristotle believed that everything in nature had both a cause and a purpose. He believed the purpose of natural philosphy was not to discover how things wor, but why they work. |
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Carley said the scientific method is a direct outgrowth of |
Carley said the scientific method is a direct outgrowth of Francis Bacon's work. |
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Carley said a well-done experiment does not fail.... |
Carley said a well-done experiment does not fail, rather, the hypothesis failes. We gather a body of evidence large enough to turn our hypothesis into a generalization about how the world works. |
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Francis Bacon said the first task of true induction is.. |
to reject natures which are 1) not found where the given nature is present 2) found in some instance where the given nature is not 3) found to increase some when the given nature decreases or 4) are found to decrease when the given anture increases. |
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Francis Bacon said precepts of kind divide into three |
i. catering to the sensus, ii. cantering to the memory and iii catering to the mind or reason. |
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Francis Bacon said there are two guides for the interpretation of nature |
Francis Bacon said there are two guides for the interpretation of nature, how to draw or fetch up axioms from experience, how to get from axioms to new experiments. |
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Francis Bacon said the true and lawful finishing-post of the sciences is |
Francis Bacon said the true and lawful finishing-post of the sciences is just new discoveries and powers in the service of human life |
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Francis Bacon said there are only two ways of searching and discovering truth. |
Anticipation of nature, Interpretation of nature |
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Anticipation of nature... |
starts with the sensus and particular events and goes up from them to the most general axioms; on the basis of these, taken as unshakably true principles, it proceeds to judgement and to the discovery of intermediate axioms. |
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interpreting nature.... |
derives axioms from the senses and particualr events on a gradual and unbroken ascent, going through the intermediate axioms and arriving at the most general axioms. |
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Francis Bacon said there sould be two disciplines among philosphers |
Francis Bacon said there sould be two disciplines among philosphers, one cultivating knowledge we have and another discovering new knowledge. |
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Francis Bacon said the mind shouldn't be left to its own devices, |
Francis Bacon said the mind shouldn't be left to its own devices, but right from the outset should be guided at every step, as though a machine were in control |
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Francis Bacon said workmen without tools |
Francis Bacon said workmen without tools would be at a disadvantage, so are those who work with the naked intellect |
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Francis Bacon was concerned that men of science of his time |
Francis Bacon was concerned that men of science of his time did not start from true premises or ended at the right conclusion. |
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Francis Bacon said the effect |
Francis Bacon said the effect can't be produced without a cause |
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Francis Bacon called human reason, |
Francis Bacon called human reason, "Anticipations of Nature." and reason elicited from facts by a methodical process he called, "Interpretation of Nature." |
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Francis Bacon said there are four classes of idols |
Francis Bacon said there are four classes of idols, Tribe, Cave, Marketplace and of the Theatre - P. 89 Readings. |
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Who said there are four classes of idols |
Francis Bacon said there are four classes of idols, Tribe, Cave, Marketplace and of the Theatre r |
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Francis Bacon said what is the only way to avoid idols. |
Francis Bacon said forming ideas and axioms by induction is the only way to avoid idols. |
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Aristotle's four causes |
Material - Form - Efficient cause - Final --also called-- Matter - Form - Mover- For the sake of |
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Material cause |
What something is made of |
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Form cause |
What it means to be that thing, ie, the shape |
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Efficient cause |
How the thing came about, the artisins |
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Final cause |
For the sake of - why the thing was done |
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Teleology |
From the gree Telos, meaning end or purpose |
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Who believed in a teleogy? |
Aristotle |
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Describe how Bacon thought science worked |
Collect data --> Middle axiom ---> foundational axioms |
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How did Aristotle think science worked |
Lots of data --> logic ?? |
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Why did aristotle think Nature had a cause? |
Because nature seemed designed, if it had no purpose, it would not look as it did |
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Aristotle believed nature worked for... |
necessity. If we can learn its Tilos, then we can figure out what its final cause is |
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In what way did Aristotle admit his philosphy seemed to have problems |
Becuase there were floods and errors in nature. But he pointed out that they happened regularly. |
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Aristotle believed that nature operated... |
with a purpose, not at random |
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Aristotle believed there were three branches of study, what are they? |
1) Things incapable of motion 2) things in motion, 3) distructable things |
