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72 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the traditional definition of knowledge? |
Traditionally, philosophers have defined knowledge as justified true belief. |
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For someone truthfully to claim that they know something, what three things must be true?
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They must Believe it to be true, it must actually be true, and they must be able to provide adequate justification for their beliefs.
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Name two ways people justify their opinions.
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On the basis of what our reason tells us and on the basis of our experience of the world. |
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Knowledge that comes from reason alone is called… (without any appeal to our experience of the world)
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a priori knowledge
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Knowledge that comes from the senses is called… (it is justified by appealing to our experience)
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a posteriori
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What are the three main theories of knowledge?
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The three main theories of knowledge are rationalism, empiricism, and pragmatism.
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Who is considered the father of modern rationalism?
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Renée Descartes is considered the father of modern rationalism. |
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What is rationalism?
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Rationalism is the doctrine that at least some of our knowledge of the world comes from reason alone. our knowledge extends beyond what mere sense experience tells us. |
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What is epistemological skepticism?
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Epistemological skepticism is the doctrine that no adequate justification for claims to knowledge can be given. we can know nothing but our own ignorance.
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Descartes effort to rebuild knowledge on a new foundation of bedrock certainties is sometimes referred to as… |
The epistemological turn. |
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What was David Hume's vision of philosophy?
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David Hume was and empiricist.
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How does an empiricist believe that anyone knows anything about reality?
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By basing our knowledge of reality on the experience is provided by our senses. |
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Charles Sanders Pierce is the founder of the view known as…
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Pragmatism
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Pierce believe that nothing can truly be known a priori, and all such claims are a type of…
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Dogmatism
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What is the point of Renée Descartes reflection on dreaming in the fifth paragraph of meditation one, and why is it significant |
He believes that perception in dreaming is no more reliable than perceptions made while we're awake. |
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In medication II, Renée Descartes declares that he is a…
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A thing that thinks
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David Hume believed all the objects of human reason or inquiry may be divided into two kinds.. what are they? |
1) Relations of ideas 2) Matters of fact |
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What did David Hume define as Relations of Ideas? |
The sciences of Geometry, Algebra and Arithmetic...every affirmation which is either intuitively or demonstratively certain. -- They are discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without existent in the universe. |
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According to David Hume, all reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on ... |
...the relation of cause and effect. |
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What is the foundation of all of our reasonings and conclusions about the relation of cause and effect according to David Hume?
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Experience
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Hume said reasonings may be divided into what two groups?
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Demonstrative which is that concerning relations of ideas, and moral reasoning, or that concerning matter-of-fact and existence.
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How did David Hume define cause?
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An object followed by another, and where all the objects, similar to the first, are followed by object similar to the second. (If the first object had not been, the second never had existed.) or the thought of the second one.
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Hume divides all perceptions of the mind into the two classes |
Impressions and ideas. |
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According to Hume, if we are in doubt as to the meaningfulness of an idea, what question ought we to ask? |
From what sense impression is that supposed idea derived? |
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How does Hume distinguish between "Relations and Ideas" and "Matters of Fact?" |
Relations of ideas are a priori and indestructible bonds created between ideas.
Matters of fact deal with experience |
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Hume maintains that cause and effect are... |
...Necessarily connected, which means that whenever C happens, E must follow, |
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What is the point of Descartes' reflections on dreaming in the fifth paragraph of Meditation I? |
That waking perceptions are no more reliable than dreaming ones. |
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In Meditation II, Descartes describes wax before and after it melts. What are the characteristics before, what is left after it melts. |
It is hard before. it is soft afterwards |
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In Meditation III, what seems to assure Descartes of the truth of what he claims to know? |
A clear and distinct perception of what he states |
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Who said every idea is copied from some preceding impression or sentiment? |
David Hume |
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What did Pierce say was the object of reasoning |
To find out, from the consideration of what we already know, something else which we do not know. |
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What, according to Pierce, is a guiding principle of inference |
Formulation of habits of reasoning. We draw conclusions in our reasoning on the basis of habit. |
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What did pierce use as an example of the guiding principle of inference? |
What is true of one piece of copper is true of another. If this piece of copper does such and such here, then another will do the same. |
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What did Pierce believe were the two divisions of classes of facts?
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1) those which are essential as guiding principles 2) those which have any other interest has objects of research
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What did Pierce call the irritation of doubt struggling to attain a state of belief?
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Inquiry
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What did pierce believe was the only immediate motive for the struggle to attain beliefs?
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The irritation of doubt
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What did Pierce believe was necessary for real inquiry? |
Doubt
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Describe the method of tenacity |
“Don’t confuse me with the facts, my mind is already made up.” |
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What term did Pierce have for a method of fixing belief? |
Method of tenacity |
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Peirce, speaking of how about how we can reach settled and fixed beliefs, said there are four dominant methodologies which are represented, albeit grossly by the following “mind-sets:” |
The method of tenacity The method of authority The a priori method The method of science |
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What is the problem with The method of tenacity? |
others’ orientations cause us to question our orientation (their views shake our confidence in our “fixed” belief). |
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What is the problem with the method of authority according to Pierce? |
-problem: no institution can “fix” all beliefs. |
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What did Pierce say is the problem with The a priori method |
-problem: it makes inquiry and belief “fixation” into a matter of taste (what is intuitively obvious varies from time to time). |
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Describe "the method of authority" |
“The Bible (my priest, my teacher, the Constitution, etc.) says....” |
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Describe the a priori method |
“By the natural light of reason…,” “as any fool can plainly see…,” “it is intuitively obvious that....” |
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What is he problem with the a priori method according to Pierce? |
-problem: it makes inquiry and belief “fixation” into a matter of taste (what is intuitively obvious varies from time to time). |
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Describe what Pierce called the method of science |
need to find this in the book |
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The irritation of doubt causes a struggle… |
… To attain a state of belief.
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According to Charles Sanders Pierce, the sole object of inquiry is…
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… The settlement of opinion.
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In addition to the scientific method, what are the other three methods of fixing belief? |
The method of tenacity The method of authority The a priori method |
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What did pierce maintain that the irritation of doubt causes? |
A struggle to attain a state of belief. |
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Why does Pierce think that the scientific or experimental method is superior to the other three methods of fixing belief? |
because it is something that can be checked against reality and against the opinions/beliefs of others. He finds the other methods lacking because, according to him, they privilege the beliefs you are already inclined to believe and do not do enough in the way of pushing us to look for an objective truth. |
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What is Foundationalism? |
beliefs can be justified based on basic or foundational beliefs (beliefs that give justificatory support to other beliefs). |
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What is a self-evident truth? |
something is self-evident when understanding what it means immediately results in knowing that it is true. |
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What is certainty? |
Certainty is the acceptance of a fact without doubt. |
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What is "The Cogito" |
"I think, therefore I am" Cogito ergo sum |
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Clarity and Distinctness |
Also called the Truth Rule: whatever idea or judgment I clearly and distinctly perceive, is true.
If I clearly and distinctly perceive that p, then p is true. |
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What is an innate idea? |
an idea that is present in the mind at birth. |
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What did Locke call a simple idea |
Those that cannot conceivably get into the mind in any way other than by experience. |
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The Experimental Method |
? a willingness to look at a matter from any point of view, and to follow out that point of view to all its consequences. |
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Describe the belief-doubt model |
beliefs are the origin of inquiry and change when doubts arise. |
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What is fabilism? |
? the principle that propositions concerning empirical knowledge can be accepted even though they cannot be proved with certainty. |
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What did Sir Francis Bacon call preconceptions we bring to our studies? |
Idols |
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What is the books definition of the 'scientific method?' |
A series of steps that imposes rigor and logic on science. Obervations--> Hypothesis --> Test |
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From what field of study did science grow? |
Natural philosphy |
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Aristotle believed that everything in nature had... |
both cause and a purpose |
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What is a big difference between modern science and natural philosophy? |
...how things worked, but why they work. Modern science does not assume there is a purpose. |
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How does Bacon's work stand in stark contrast to Aristotle? |
Bacon emphasized the role of logic and reason in science. He said problems arise when we fail to appy rigourous objectivity to our science. |
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From Bacon's lists of specific instances of heat, he derives general properties of heat. This purely theoretical activity is... |
Induction or inductive reasoning. |
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Describe difference of Induction and Deduction |
Induction takes general properties and comes to a general rule(??). Deduction general principals to determine the properties of specific items assigned to a class. |
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What is a paradigm as Kuhn used the term? |
A scientific concept so global and new that it generates whole new sets of problems and experiments and redefines the way we think about the natural world. |
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Thomas Kuhn argued that paradigms cannot change... |
under the control of an unchanging God. |
