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51 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Shaping
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Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing behaviors that progressive approximate the target behavior (operant response). Shaping can be used to train organisms to perform behaviors that would rarely if ever occur otherwise.
For example, to teach a child to write his or her first name, you initially give praise for writing the first letter correctly. After the child has mastered that first step, letter-by-letter you give praise until the entire name is correctly written. |
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Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a method for modifying behavior (an operant) which utilizes contingencies between a discriminative stimulus, an operant response, and a reinforcer to change the probability of a response occurring again in that situation. This method is based on Skinner's three-term contingency and it differs from the method of Pavlovian conditioning.
An everyday illustration of operant conditioning involves training your dog to "shake" on command. Using the operant conditioning technique of shaping, you speak the command to "shake" (the discriminative stimulus) and then wait until your dog moves one of his forepaws a bit (operant response). Following this behavior, you give your dog a tasty treat (positive reinforcer). After demanding ever closer approximations to shaking your hand, your dog finally comes to perform the desired response to the verbal command "shake." |
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Positive Reinforcer
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A positive reinforcer is an appetitive event whose presentation follows an operant response. The positive reinforcer increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again under the same circumstances.
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Negative Reinforcer
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A negative reinforcer is an aversive event whose removal follows an operant response. The negative reinforcer increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again under the same circumstances.
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Primary Reinforcer
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A primary reinforcer is a reinforcer that is biologically pre-established to act as reinforcement.
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Secondary Reinforcer
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A conditioned reinforcer is a previously neutral stimulus. If the neutral stimulus is paired with a primary reinforcer it acquires the same reinforcement properties associated with the primary reinforcer.
Money is a conditioned reinforcer. The actual paper bills are not themselves reinforcing. However, the paper bills can be used to acquire primary reinforcers such as food, water, and shelter. Therefore, the paper bills become reinforcers as a result of pairing them with the acquisition of food, water, and shelter. |
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Bobo Doll Studies
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Bandura study on modeling with different models acting aggressively against bobo doll
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Continuous Reinforcement
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n continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
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Partial Reinforcement
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In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
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Response Contingent
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Response contingent. Operant reinforcement must be given only after desired responses. Contingent reinforcement also affects the performance of responses.
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Successive approximations.
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Ever closer matches (to the desired responses).
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Fixed-ratio schedules
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Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
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Variable-ratio schedules
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Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.
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Fixed-interval schedules
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Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
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Variable-interval schedules
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Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
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Triadic reciprocal causation model
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Triadic reciprocal causation – the interplay of environment, behavior, & personal factors
Fortuitous events and chance encounters are key environmental forces in this model personal factors (cognitions): Cognitions, beliefs, individual appraisal |
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Enactive Learning
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less efficient because you have to experience
Three functions of reinforcement: Informs people of their actions Motivates anticipatory behavior Consequences reinforce behavior (better if understood) |
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Reciprocal Determinism
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environment causes behavior & behavior causes environment
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Collective Efficacy
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A group's confident expectation that it will successfully achieve its intended goal.
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Contributors to Self Efficacy
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Mastery Experiences*
Successful performance raises efficacy expectancies (in difficult tasks only) Individual success is more effective in raising efficacy than group success Failure is most likely to decrease efficacy when we have tried hard Failure prior to establishing efficacy is more detrimental than later failure Occasional failure has little effect on efficacy – esp. if high already Social Modeling Vicarious experiences – watching those like us succeed Social Persuasion Opinions of others during a task – criticism, praise Depends on status of the other Physical & Emotional States High physiological arousal lowers efficacy Mediated by performance deficits when aroused *Mastery is the most influential source of self efficacy. |
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Self Efficacy
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“People’s beliefs in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own functioning and over environmental events” (Bandura, 2001).
Separate from outcome expectancies You may feel confident in your abilities and still know you will not get the outcome b/c of other factors at play Varies from situation to situation. Strongest predictor of behavior (doesn’t operate alone, however). |
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Human Agency
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humans have control over their lives
are the product of and producers of environment “people are self regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing and they have the power to influence their own actions to produce desired consequences” (Bandura, 2001, as cited in Feist & Feist, 2006). Core Features of Human Agency Intentionality: things that we do intentionally to try to bring a plan to fruition Forethought: setting goals, plan behaviors, anticipate likely outcomes Self-Reactiveness: altering behaviors while in process Self-Reflectiveness: thinking about values, motives & evaluate self Self Efficacy - feelings that you can do activity |
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Moral agency
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Discussion of moral agency for when we find ourselves in morally ambiguous situations (how we justify or redefine behavior; minimize consequences; dehumanize the victims; diffuse responsibility).
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Reciprocal Determinsm
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environment causes behavior & behavior causes environment
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Plasticity in Learning
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Humans have plasticity in learning
Humans have the flexibility to learn a variety of behaviors in diverse situations Can be through direct experience (like Skinner) Most is through vicarious learning / modeling |
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Social Cognitive Theory
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Bandura
Takes an Agentic Perspective Human Agency Moral Agency Self Eficacy Plasticity in Learning External and Internal factors Interplay Triadic Causation Model |
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Radical Behaviorism
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skinner
Shouldn’t hypothesize about internal Only focus on external, observable events Should determine what events predict observable behaviors. “I was so frustrated yesterday, that I almost quit my job.” versus “I am observing within myself increasing degrees of frustration, which are raising the probability that I will inform my boss that I am quitting.” |
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Skinner Box
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Prior to the work of Skinner, instrumental learning was typically studied using a maze or a puzzle box. Learning in these settings is better suited to examining discrete trials or episodes of behavior, instead of the continuous stream of behavior. The Skinner Box is an experimental environment that is better suited to examine the more natural flow of behavior. (The Skinner Box is also referred to as an operant conditioning chamber.)
A Skinner Box is a often small chamber that is used to conduct operant conditioning research with animals. Within the chamber, there is usually a lever (for rats) or a key (for pigeons) that an individual animal can operate to obtain a food or water within the chamber as a reinforcer. The chamber is connected to electronic equipment that records the animal's lever pressing or key pecking, thus allowing for the precise quantification of behavior. |
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Abraham Maslow
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Humanistic Psychology
1st Force = Psychoanalytic 2nd Force = Behaviorist 3rd Force = Humanistic |
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Holistic-Dynamic Theory
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Abraham Maslow
Holistic approach to motivation The whole person is motivated (not a part) Motivation is usually complex A person’s behavior may spring from several different motives People are continually motivated by one need or another When a need is satisfied, then it loses its motivational power All people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs Manner of fulfilling may be different, but needs are the same Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy Lower level needs must be relatively satisfied before moving on to higher |
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Hierarchy of Needs
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Physiological Needs
Can be completely or overly satisfied; recur Safety Needs Cannot be over satisfied Love/Belongingness Esteem Needs (self & other esteem) “Self esteem reflects a desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom.” Self-Actualization Not an automatic step – need to embrace the B-values |
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Criteria of Self-Actualized
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Free from psychopathology
Had progressed through the hierarchy of needs. Embraced the b-values Truth, beauty, justice, simplicity, humor Full use of their talents, capacities, potentialities What a man can be, he must be. |
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Characteristics of Self-Actualized
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Efficient perception of reality
Acceptance of self, others, and nature Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness Increased desire for Privacy Autonomy Continued freshness of appreciation Peak Experiences Gemeinschaftsgefuhl (social interest) Profound interpersonal relations Democratic Character Structure (i.e. equality of races, genders, ages) Discrimination between means and ends Philosophical Sense of Humor Creativeness Resistance to Enculturation |
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Humanistic Psychology
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Maslow --> third force focus on They discussed several themes - such as self, self-actualization, health, creativity, intrinsic nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning - which they believed likely to become central concerns of such an approach to psychology.
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Cognitive Needs
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– they have a striving/motivational character
all needs on hierarchy are cognitive |
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B needs
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Maslow also called self actualization need growth motivation or being needs (B-Needs)
Truth, beauty, justice, simplicity, humor Wholeness/Unity/Oneness Perfection/Just-so-ness Completion/Finality/Ending Justice/Fairness Aliveness/Full-Functioning Richness/Intricacy Simplicity/Essential/Honesty Beauty/Form/Richness Goodness/Oughtness Uniqueness/Idiosyncrasy/Novelty Effortlessness/Ease/Perfect Playfulness/Joy/Humor Truth/Reality/Beauty/Pure Self-Sufficiency/Independenc |
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Metapathology
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failure to satisify meta or being needs = Failure to satify them, thought Maslow, is harmful just as is failure to satisfy the lower needs. Frustration of metaneeds produces metapathology.
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original hierarchy of needs
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5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. |
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Neurotic Needs
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nonproductive needs which perpetuate an unhealthy style of life. Neurotic needs are seen as compensatory reactions to a failure to fulfill one or more basic needs.
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Self-Actualization
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Maslow used the term self-actualization to describe a desire, not a driving force, that could lead to realizing one's capabilities. Maslow did not feel that self-actualization determined one's life; rather, he felt that it gave the individual a desire, or motivation to achieve budding ambitions.[3] Maslow's usage of the term is now popular in modern psychology when discussing personality from the humanistic approach.
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Carl Rogers
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“How can I help this person grow and develop?”
Client Centered Therapist All individuals have within themselves the ability to guide their own lives in a manner that is both personally satisfying and socially constructive. In a particular type of helping relationship, we free the individuals to find their inner wisdom and confidence, and they will make increasingly healthier and more constructive choices.” |
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Client Centered Therapy
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Based on assumption of formative and actualizing tendency -- Rogers
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Formative Tendency
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there is a tendency for all matter to evolve
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Actualizing Tendency
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all human beings/organisms tend to move towards completion, fulfillment of potential
congruence unconditional positive regard empathy |
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Congruence
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aware of experiences; feelings are accurately demonstrated
In my relationships with persons I have found that it does not help, in the long run, to act as though I were something that I am not….It does not help to act calm and pleasant when actually I am angry and critical. It does not help to act as though I were permissive when I am really feeling that I would like to set limits…It does not help to act as though I were acceptant of another person when underneath that exterior I feel rejection.” convergence of ideal self and self concept Incongruence between self concept and ideal self causes anxiety/tension/psychopathology. |
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Psychologically Healthy Person
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Rogers - fully functioning person/person of tomorrow
1. Able to adjust to change 2. Is open to their experiences (no denial/distortion) 3. Is able to live fully in the moment 4. Is able to have harmonious relations with others 5. Is more integrated with no artificial boundaries between conscious and unconscious processes 6. Has a basic trust of human nature 7. Enjoys a greater richness in life |
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Ideal Self
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how you would like to be
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Self Concept
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(perceived self)
how you see yourself |
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Unconditional Positive Regard
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need to be loved without qualifications / conditions
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Table 16.1: Roger’s Theory of Therapeutic Change
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If the following conditions exist:
1. A vulnerable and anxious client 2. contacts a counselor who possesses 3. congruence in relationship, 4. unconditional positive regard for the client and 5. empathetic understanding for the client’s internal frame of reference and 6. the client perceives conditions 3,4,5 Then therapeutic change occurs and the client will: 1. become more congruent 2. be less defensive 3. become more open to experiences 4. have more realistic view of world 5. develop positive self regard 6. close the gap between ideal self and real self 7. be less vulnerable to threat 8. take ownership of experiences 9. become more accepting of others 10. become more congruent in relationships with others. |
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Empathy
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feeling understood by therapist
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