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140 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Basic Human Needs
1. Connection
2. Autonomy
3. Control
4. Meaning
5. Security
Maslow's Hierarchy
Security is lowest= cant do anything if not secure
Seduction Theory and Drive structure Theory
are SEPARATE
Powerful urges of what create structure?
Powerful urges of ID create structure

Ego and Superego are outgrowth of Id
Motivational determinism
Id is what motivates us
(Biological Determinism)
Constancy Principle
Id is motivated to abolish tension, but this is not possible. So we are just trying to reduce tension as much as we can to satisfy desires.
Sensory Anesthesia
Psychomatic

No rational/physical basic

Hysteria
What are the 5 fundamental Human Needs?
1. Human Connection
2. Autonomy/Freedom
3. Competence/Control/Mastery
4. Meaning
5. Security
What is Freud's Seduction Theory?
All of neurosis. all of human suffering stems from childhood abuse --> over-generalization
- child physically/sexually abused by adult that provokes defences
a) Repression
b) Displacement
- Rage against father displaced to mother, who is not perpetrator, because it's less threatening
- Neurosis carry over into adulthood that obstruct you from fulfilling fundamental human needs
Freud's Drive-Structure Model
a) REALITY IS IRRELIVANT
- wish to be sexually molested by opposite-sex parent. Biological drive that lead you to wish, and that wish you cannot stomach - that is what provoes the anxiety, the psychological defense
1. "Unconscious Wish"/ Urges/Drive State
a) Infantile Sexuality
2. Drive - biological
a) strength of drive controls how psycho-pathology develops
b) drives produce:
- certain psychic structures
- Id
- Ego
- Superego
- Drive - Libido
- Everything is about pleasure --> The pleasure principle
Insight versus Implementation
Psychodynamic theories: Gaining INSIGHT into conflicts

Behavioral: Implementation

(They say it's neither necessary nor sufficient to just gain insight; you can do without it)
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
We dont need to know whats going on inside the head

Behavior is controlled by its consequences
Operant
Randomly emitted behavior, not elicited

Freely emitted response patterns that operate on the environment; their future strength depends on their consequences
Reinforcement
Increase probability of behavior occuring again

A REINFORCEMENT IS EMPIRICALLY DEFINED

Any consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated or strengthened
What constitutes a reinforcement?
Anything that increases the behavior
Shaping
Technique for producing successively better approximations of behavior by reinforcing small variations in behavior in the desired direction and by reinforcing only increasingly close approximations to the desired behavior

EX: tossing food pellets to a dog until they get "shake" right
Punishment
is NOT a reinforcement

DECREASES probability of behavior occurring again

WEAKENS the operant
Negative Reinforcement
Is NOT punishment

removal of aversive stimulus

EX: Person A punches screaming baby. Behavior:Punch.
Reinforcement: Baby stops screaming

If there was not an outcome reinforcing your behavior, you would not be doing it.

In order to change behavior, change consequences
Constancy Principle
Constancy principle aims to bring all tension to zero in spite of urges and the aim if instincts to gain pleasure and release
Aim of Psychic System - ID, Ego, Superego
tension reduction --> almost impossible to achieve as psychic urges are constantly in conflict with each other, operating in opposite directions
ID
- Id and libido (located in id) is seeking pleasure
- wants instant gratification

Every single bit of the ID is unconscious

Pleasure principle guides ID
Ego
- outgrowth of id
- no energy of its own; not autonomous/independent
- grows out of libido, fueled by libido, grows out of id
- not about seeking pleasure in particular
- mediating between id (child trying to find way to get what it wants) and superego (demands perfection, obedience to rules)
- When ego develops, there comes to be a capacity to separate fantasy and reality
- engaging with world in whatever manner
- dealing with pressures from reality and refereeing boxing match between id and superego
- slave to three very harsh masters (id, superego, reality)
- fundamentally weak (since it stems from libido)

Rather significant portion of ego is unconscious

Reality principle guides ego

ego is weak
Superego
- emerges after Ego
- fueled by libido
1. Conscience --- "Do not violate/betray your duties and requirements; if you do violate them you will be punished."
2. Ego-Ideal --- Need to aspire to things considered positive by society

Part unconscious
ABC's of behavior
A- Antecedent

B- Behavior

C- Consequences
WHAT IS PERSONALITY? Chapter 1
The term "personality" implies stable and coherent individual differences that can be described or predicted.

In personality psychology, "personality" refers to the persons unique patterns of coping with and transforming the psychological environment.

Personality psychologists study how personality dispositions and psychological and biological-genetic processes influences peoples distinctive patterns of behavior.
THEORY AND LEVELS OF ANALYSIS: Chapter 1
In the first half of the last century, grand theories of personality (e.g., those of Freud) developed, introducing many lines of research and therapeutic practices.

Work In personality psychology can now be grouped into SIX different major levels of analysis.

These SIX levels provide an overview of the many complex and diverse aspects of human personality.

The example of Charles Whitman shows how each level of analysis contributes to a fuller understanding of individual personality and behavior

The SIX levels are Trait disposition, Biological, Psychodynamic-Motivational, Behavioral-Conditioning, Phenomenological-Humanistic, Social Cognitive
Trait-Dispositional Level
Tries to identify consistencies in the basic expressions of personality, conceptualized as stable personality characteristics
Biological Level
Explores the biological bases of personality, including the role of heredity, the brain, and evolution.
Psychodynamic Motivational Level
Probes the motivations, conflicts, and defenses-- often unconscious--- that may underlie diverse aspects of personality.
Behavioral- Conditioning Level
Analyzes specific patterns of behavior that characterize individuals and identifies the conditions that regulate their occurence.
Phenomenological Humanistic Level
Focuses on the inner experiences of the person and his or her way of seeing and interpreting the world.
Social Cognitive Level
Shares the focuses with the Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Phenomenological levels, but places a greater emphasis on scientifically rigorous analysis of the patterns of thoughts and feelings and the role of situational contexts on them.
TOWARD AN INTEGRATIVE SCIENCE: Chapter 1
Work at each level provides basic concepts and strategies for seeking information about people and for constructively changing maladaptive behavior patterns.

An increasingly comprehensive view of the person seems to be emerging that incorporates many of the insights and findings from each level of analysis.

Boundaries are also being crossed between personality psychology and other related fields.
STUDYING PERSON: SOURCES OF INFORMATION: Chapter 2
Psychologists want to understand personality to predict future behavior and understand present and past behavior.

Case studies are a method used to evaluate the individual intensively. They can be conducted at each level of analysis and over many occasions. The case of "Gary W." will be used as a case example through the text.

Psychologists utilize various types of personality tests or structured interviews to assess personality in a quantifiable way.

Naturalistic observation is especially useful when aspects of behavior cannot-- or should not-- be manipulated.
STUDYING PERSON: SOURCES OF INFORMATION... Continued
Direct behavior measurement samples behavior in diverse situations. It includes both verbal and nonverbal behavior, as well as physiological measurements of emotional reactions.

Through remote behavior sampling and daily dairy studies, researchers can collect samples of behavior from respondents as they live their daily lives.

To measure changes in the autonomic nervous system, researchers often utilize data from the EKG, plethysmograph, galvanic skin responses (GSR), and EEG.

PET scans and fMRI help examine nerual activity in the brain.

Researchers utilize a variety of methods in laboratory settings, such as priming and memory tasks, to better understand underlying cognitive processes.
CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS: Chapter 2
CONSTRUCTS are concepts that refer to classes of behaviors and situations.

OPERATIONALIZATION refers to the specific procedures used to produce or measure constructs in a particular study.
ESTABLISHING AND QUANTIFYING THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG OBSERVATIONS: Chapter 2
The correlational approach utilizes statistical analysis to measure whether two phenomena or variables are related to one another

The degree to which two variables are related is mathematically represented by the correlation coefficient
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY: Chapter 2
RELIABILITY is found when the results of a measure can be repeated both within the confines of the study and with different investigators.

Validity refers to how well an assessment device actually measures what it claims to measure. It includes content validity, construct validity, and criterion validity, both concurrent and predictive.
THE EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Chapter 2
The experimental approach tries to demonstrate causal relations by manipulating one variable-- the independent variable-- and measuring the effects on a second variable-- the dependent variable.

In order to minimize experimenter expectancy effects, experiments may be set up to be double-blind.
ETHICS IN PERSONALITY RESEARCH: Chapter 2
To help researchers take into account the privacy and welfare of their participants, the American Psychological Association has set up guidelines to ensure that participants cannot be placed in either physical or psychological jeopardy without their informed consent
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS: Chapter 7
Freud's word was based on clinical observations of neurotic persons and self-analysis. This led him to posit the unconscious as a key component of personality.

Freud used dreams and free association to tap into unconscious wishes.
PSYCHIC STRUCTURE: Chapter 7
The id, ego, superego form the psychodynamic structure of the personality.

The id is the primary, instincual core, obeying the "pleasure principle."

The ego mediates between the conflicting demands of the id and the superego, testing the outer world of reality, utilizing "secondary processes": logical thinking and rational planning to ensure survival.

The superego represents the internalized moral standards, values, and ideals of society as conveyed by the parents.

Recent empirical and theoretical research has shown evidence to support Freud's theory of psychic structure, despite it still being viewed often as archaic and unscientific.
CONFLICT, ANXIETY, AND PSYCHODYNAMICS:Chapter 7
Many of Allport's future views on adult motivation were shaped by a traumatic encounter with Freud at age 22.

Personality dynamics involve a perpetual conflict between the id, ego, and superego.

The desire for immediate gratification of sexual and aggressive instincts puts the person in conflict with the environment and ultimately the superego. This struggle produces anxiety.

Defenses such as denial and repression may be used by the ego when it is unable to handle anxiety effectively. The persons unacceptable impulses and unconscious motives are transformed into "symptoms."

The total mind (or psyche) is seen as a closed system motivated to maintain equilibrium: any forces that build up require discharge.
NEUROSIS: Chapter 7
When defenses fail, the conflicts may build up into neurotic anxiety, revealed indirectly through symbolic behavior.

Neuroses are a product of early childhood trauma combined with innate predispositions

Small mistakes or slips of the tongue may reveal an unconscious need to express undesirable impulses

All behavior, even the seemingly insignificant or absurd, is motivated and significant
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT: Chapter 7
Personality development includes a series of psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, and genital.

Later personality traits develop according to the individuals experience at each of these stages of maturation.

In fixation, a sexual impulse is arrested at a nearly stage.

Regression is a reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of stress.

Anaclitic identification and identification with the aggressor are two Freudian identification mechanisms.
IMPACT OF FREUD'S THEORIES: Chapter 7
Healthy individuals achieve a kind of truce and order with themselves by substituting rational choice and reason for raw id impulses to arrive at the final stage of psychosexual development

The Freudian approach views an individuals problematic behavior as symptomatic and searches for the unconscious causes of these symptoms.
TOWARD EGO PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SELF Chapter 9
The psychoanalytic followers of Freud deephasized the role of instincts and psychosexual stages.

They concerned themselves more with the social milieu and the ego.

Anna Freud described defense mechanisms that may serve the ego in coping with anxiety and life tasks. These mechanisms include repression, projection, reaction formation, rationalization, and sublimation.
TOWARD EGO PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SELF- Continued Chapter 9
Jung emphasized the collective unconscious and it symbolic and mystical expressions. He focused on dreams and on the need to achieve unity through awareness of the collective and personal unconscious.

Adler saw individuals as struggling from birth to overcome profound feelings of helplessness and inferiority by striving for perfection.

According to Adler, people are social beings who are influenced more by cultural influences and personal relations than by sexual instincts.

Fromm likewise saw people primarily as social beings who can be understood best in relation to others. Culture does not exist to stifle instinctual drives; instead, it is a product of the people in the society.
ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT: Chapter 9
Erikson views on social adaption, not unconscious sexual urges, as the key force underlying development that takes place over an entire lifetime.

Each of Erikson's developmental stages are characterized by psychosocial crises; trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame, initiative verus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair.

Most critical during this development is the evolution of "ego identity."
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY AND THE SELF: Chapter 9
In object relations theory, the developing self is defined in relation to other "objects" or human beings.

Klein observed that the young child splits the world into "good" and "bad" components.

Kernberg and Kohut emphasize the mental representation of the self and other persons that develop in the early relationship with the primary caregiver.
ATTACHMENT: THE ROOTS OF OBJECT RELATIONS: Chapter 9
In attachment theory, the early relationship between the individual and his or her caregiver becomes the basic framework for the perception and experience of later relationships.

Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" study assessed individual differences in attachment relations (insecure-avoidant, securely attached, or insecure-resistant) by putting the toddler in an unfamiliar setting with different levels of exposure to his or her mother.
ATTACHMENT: THE ROOTS OF OBJECT RELATIONS- Continued : Chapter 9
Kohut theorized that in Freud's time, families tended to expose their children to excessive emotional closeness. whereas children in the 21st century are more likely to have less parental exposure and emotional support, hence they may lack "empathic mirroring."

Psychotherapy in this framework, called relational therapy, utilizes a close, empathic relationship between the therapist and the client to gradually confront conflicts and defenses. In this view, these problems developed out of difficulties in early relationships with primary caretakers, often the mother.
THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO PSYCHODYNAMICS: DOLLARD AND MILLER: Chapter 10
Dollard and Miller fused psychoanalytic concepts with the more objective language and methods of laboratory studies of animal learning.

Dollard and Miller apply the concept of goal gradients to map approach and avoidance tendencies as a function of distance from the goal object

Their theory emphasizes drive, cue, response, and reinforcement as the basic components of learning. Events that reduce a drive serve as reinforcements.

Neurotic conflict exists when two or more goals are mutually exclusive. This conflict can create anxiety and repression.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Chapter 10
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS), such that the former unconditioned response (UCR) may be enacted when only the CS is present, thus becoming a conditioned response (CR).

Classical conditioning principles have been extended to explain some complex social phenomena and neurotic or abnormal behaviors, such as irrational fears.

Traumatic fear may generalize so that events and cognitions closely associated with the original traumatic experiences may later evoke anxiety even after the objective danger is gone.
OPERANT CONDITIONING: B.F. SKINNER'S INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY: Chapter 10
B.F. Skinner's work focused on operant conditioning, in which behavior patterns may be modified by changing the consequences (reinforcements) to which they lead. Information and attention, as well as food and sexual gratification, are among the many outcomes that can serve as reinforcers.

In Skinner's conceptualization, analysis of the stimulus conditions controlling behavior (the "operants") replaces inferences about internal conflicts and underlying motives.

In Skinner's view, discrimination in learning is fundamental in the socialization process. When behavior yields similar consequences under many conditions, generalization occurs, and the individual may display similar behavior patterns across diverse settings.
OPERANT CONDITIONING: B.F. SKINNER'S INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY: Continued Chapter 10
Behavior may be shaped by reinforcing successively closer approximations to a particular desired behavior.

While continuous reward or reinforcement for behavior may result in faster learning, irregular or intermittent reinforcement often produces more stable behavior that persists even when reinforcement is withdrawn. Many potentially maladaptive behaviors are rewarded irregularly and may therefore become very resistant to change.

Irrational behavior may be created by accidental/noncausal pairings of behavior and response.

The influence of punishment is complex and depends on many conditions, such as its timing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENTS: Chapter 11
Behavioral approaches to personality all carefully measure behavior in relation to specific stimulus conditions. They treat observed behavior as a sample, and the focus is on how the specific sample is affected by variations in the stimulus conditions.
DIRECT BEHAVIOR MEASUREMENT: Chapter 11
Behavior may be measured directly by sampling it, both verbally and in performance, and by measuring physiological and emotional reactions.

The reinforcing value of stimuli may be assessed from an individuals choices in lifelike situations, verbal preferences, and ratings, or the observed effects of various stimuli on actual behavior.

In clinical work, it may be especially important to discover rewards that are effective for the individual to facilitate therapeutic progress.
ASSESSING CONDITIONS CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR: Chapter 11
Functional analysis, the foundations of behavior assessments, require careful observation of behavior as it naturally occurs to ascertain the conditions that control or determine it.

In behavioral interventions, systematic changes are made in controlling conditions until the roblem behavior no longer occurs and more satisfying behaviors are substituted.

An example of functional analyses was explored through the case study of 4-year-old Ann, whose teachers began to positively reinforce her for interacting with peers to prevent her from social withdrawel.
CHANGING EMOTIONAL REACTIONS: Chapter 11
Systematic desensitization can help people overcome fears or anxieties. The individual is exposed cognitively (e.g. in imagination) to increasingly severe samples of aversive or fear-arousing stimuli; simultaneously she is helped to make responses incompatible with anxiety, such as muscle relaxation. Gradually the anxiety evoked by the aversive stimulus is reduced and the stimulus is neutralized.

In conditional aversion, a positive-arousing stimulus (e.g. cocain for a cocaine addict) may be neutralized by repeatedly pairing it with one that is very aversive (such as chemically induced nausea).
CHANGING BEHAVIOR: Chapter 11
Maladaptive behaviors such as hyperactivity may be modified by changing the consequences to which they lead. Attention, approval, or other positive consequences are withdrawn from the maladaptive behavior and rewards become contingent instead on the occurrence of more advantageous behavior.

The overuse of external rewards may backfire.

In contingency contracting, the person makes a contract with another individual to self- reward for increasing positive behaviors (or self-punish for performing negative behaviors, as specified in the contract.
CHANGING BEHAVIOR: Continued- Chapter 11
A promising theory of depression suggests that depressed people are caught in a vicious cycle of lack of reinforcement for their own efforts, leading to greater withdrawal from other people and, in turn, increased depression.

To facilitate transfer from treatment to life, treatment samples the relevant situations and takes place in the same setting in which improvement is desired.
SOURCES OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: Chapter 12
Phenomenological theories focus on the immediate perceived experience and concepts of individuals, and on their strivings toward growth and self-actualization.

Allport stresses the functional autonomy of motives--- current motives may be independent of their historical roots.

Lewin's field theory introduces the notion of life space and the importance of the psyfchological environment. He stresses the immediate relationships between the person and the psychological environment.

The existentialists focus on the "here and now." They emphasize that we our own lives, and that each person is a choosing, free, responsible agent.
CARL ROGER'S SELF THEORY: Chapter 12
Rogers's theory emphasizes the person's unique, subjective experience of reality. He proposes that the inherent tendency of the organism is to actualize itself.

Maslow saw self-actualization as a basic human need.

In Rogers's theory, the self (self-concept) develops as the result of direct experience with the environment and may also incorporate the perceptions of others. The experienced self in turn influences perception and behavior.
CARL ROGER'S SELF THEORY: Continued - Chapter 12
Maladjustment occurs when the self concept and a persons experiences are in opposition.

Client-centered therapy seeks to bring about the harmonious interaction of the self and the organism through unqualified acceptance by the therapist.

Rogers emphasizes unconditional acceptance as a requisite for self-regard.
GEORGE KELLY'S PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS- Chapter 12
George Kelly believes that constructs are bipolar, consisting of the psychologically opposite emergence pole and implicit pole.

Kelly focuses on how the individual views his or her own experiences. His Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test is used to study personal constructs.

Kelly's personal construct theory has also inspired many to try and uncover meaning in puzzling behavior patterns.
GEORGE KELLY'S PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS- Continued- Chapter 12
Kelly emphasizes that all individuals think much like the scientists who study them.

"Constructive alternativism" refers to the individual's ability to construe the same event in different ways, leading to different courses of action.

Role-play may help the person to select more satisfactory modes of construing the world.
EXPLORING INTERNAL EXPERIENCE: Chapter 13
Discrepancies develop between various mental representations of the self and they have emotional consequences. People use various strategies to reduce these discrepancies.

Anorexia is an example of an actual/ought discrepancy, where individuals with anorexia between the way they ought to be and the way they actually are

Research indicates that self-assessment sometimes can yield predictions as accurate as those from sophisticated personality tests.

In the Q-sort procedure, participants are asked to sort attribute cards from most descriptive to least descriptive to describe, for example, the self, the ideal self, or a relationship.
EXPLORING INTERNAL EXPERIENCE: Continued- Chapter 13
Phenomenologists use the interview to explore the person's feelings and self-concepts and to see the world from his or her framework and viewpoint.

The "semantic differential" is a rating technique for the objective assessment of the meaning of the rater's words and concepts.

Personal narratives and psychobiographies are other useful methods of exploring individuals at this level of analysis.

People create narrative identities in order to make coherent sene of the events in their lives.
ENHANCING SELF-AWARENESS: ACCESSING ONE'S EXPERIENCES: Chapter 13
Methods to enhance self-awareness and interpersonal awareness include Gestalt therapy, meditation, and encounter groups, and generally emphasize emotional aspects of experience and existence.

Researchers have also examined the effects of self disclosure (e.g., by writing about traumatic experiences) and of rumination on diverse positive and negative outcomes.
CHANGE AND WELL-BEING: Chapter 13
In this perspective, the healthy personality is characterized by personal genuineness, honest about one's own feelings, self-awareness, self-acceptance, and self-realization, without distorting one's self-perceptions.

Positive psychology uses narrative restructuring to help people see themselves as agents in their own lives with the goal of helping people to increase their pleasure, meaning, and engagement in life.
TYPES AND TRAITS: Chapter 3
Personality types refer to discrete categories of people that have similar features of characteristics (physically, psychologically, or behaviorally).

Carl Jung divided people into two types: introverts (withdrawn, shy) and extroverts (sociable, outgoing).

Traits are basic, stable qualities of the person. Unlike types, traits are continuous dimensions on which individual differences may be arranged.

Trait theorists conceptualize traits as underlying properties, qualities, or processes that exist in persons.

Trait constructs have been use to account for observed behavioral consistencies within persons and for the behavior differences among them.
TRAIT THEORISTS: Chapter 3
In Gordon Allport's theory, traits are the general and enduring mental structures that account for consistency in behavior.

According to Allport, traits range from highly generalized cardinal traits to secondary traits or more specific "attitudes."

For Allport, "personality structure" is the individual's stable pattern of unique dispositions or traits, and he urged the intensive study of the individual.

R.B. Cattell distinguished between surface and source traits, environmental-mold and constitutional traits, and general and specific traits.

Through factor analysis, Cattell tried to estimate the basic dimensions or factors underlying surface variations in behavior.

According to Hand K. Eysenck, individual differences can be measured on two, continuous trait dimensions: introversion-extroversion and emotional stability- neuroticism.
COMMON FEATURES OF TRAIT-LEVEL ANALYSES: Chapter 3
Trait theorists assume traits to be general, underlying dispositions that account for consistencies in behavior.

Some view traits as causes and explanations for behaviors; others interpret them as summaries of behavioral tendencies.

Some traits are considered to be relatively superfical and specific; others are more basic and widely generalized.

Traits are seen as enduring, stable qualities of the person over long time periods, while states refer to qualities that are brief in duration and attributable to external causes.
COMMON FEATURES OF TRAIT-LEVEL ANALYSES: Continued- Chapter 3
This level of analysis tries to identify and measure the individuals position on one or more dispositional dimensions.

Psychometric strategy is used to sample, quantify, and compare the responses of large groups of people to discover basic traits.

To test the stability of a given trait, psychologists sample the individual's behavior over the course of multiple situations.
TAXONOMY OF HUMAN ATTRIBUTES: Chapter 3
The psycholexical approach to personality categories natural-language trait terms in order to describe and understand basic human qualities.

The "Big Five" identified five primary dimensions of personality through factor analysis: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to new experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.

Each of the five dimensions (or factors) includes specific bipolar scale (e.g., quiet-talkative, suspicious- trusting).

The NEO-PI-R is a widely used personality inventory designed to rate individuals on these Big Five factors/

Certain life outcomes such as juvenile delinquency, academic achievement, longevity, and iterracial attitudes can be predicted by Big Five trait measures.

Trait research focuses on correlations among trait ratings obtained from self-reports, paper- and- pencil inventories and questionnaires. The results often show significant stability in traits over time and between independent raters.

There is increasing recognition that the qualities of the person interact with those of the situation(s) in which he or she functions.
GENETIC BASES OF PERSONALITY: Chapter 5
Many studies have shown evidence that genes play a larger role in influencing one's personality than previously thought, particularly for such temperaments as emotionality, activity level, and sociability.

Twin studies examine the separate role of genetics and environment by comparing the similarities between identical and fraternal twins raised together and raised apart.
GENETIC BASES OF PERSONALITY: Continued- Chapter 5
In these studies, answers on self-report personality questionnaires typically yield correlations of about .50 for the similarity of identical twins reared together and about .25 for fraternal twins reared together. For identical twins reared apart, correlations are only slightly lower. About 40-50% of the self-reported personality differences among individuals may be accounted for by their genetic differences.

Most twin data on personality come from self-report personality questionnaires and are open to criticism. However, in recent twin studies such measures as ratings by peers or observational measures also indicate a strong genetic influence.

The meaning of heritability estimates and their uses and misuses were discussed.
GENE ENVIRONMENT INTERPLAY: Chapter 5
Nonshared environmental influences on personality development are substantial, and children growing up in the same family experience it differently.

Individual differences in what is experiences and in the environment one encounters are partly influenced by genetic factors that exert their impact through several routes. One's personality, itself influenced by genetics as well as environment, also affects the situations that one selects, influences, and creates in the course development.

Even highly heritable traits can be constrained or limited by aspects of their social environment. Although the social environment does not influence the structure of the genes, it can change the brain and thus produce stable changes within the person at an organic level.

Stable person x situation interaction patterns also reflect both genetic and environmental influences.
TRAITS, SITUATIONS, AND THE PERSONALITY PARADOX: Chapter 4
Despite intuition and a long tradition of Western though, researchers found it difficult to show that individuals display highly consistent types of behavior across a variety of different situations.

In the person-situation debate, it seemed that psychologists had two choices: Either they could view situation information as "noise" that obscures the true, consistent personality, or they could recognize the power of situations, and treat the person as error variance.
INCORPORATING SITUATIONS INTO TRAITS: Chapter 4
Alternatively, psychologists could take into account situational features when interpreting individual behavior patterns.

Personality may be seen both in the overall average frequency of behaviors and in the link between the type of behavior and the type of situation in which it occurs.

The if.....then... situation-behavior signatures that have been studied show significant stability. Two types of personality consistency emerge, (1) the average overall behavioral tendencies and (2) distinctive if..... then..... situation-behavior signatures.

Measures of traits are often not able to predict single acts, but they may predict a pooled combination of behaviors across different situations.

Knowing what a person does in specific types of situations can help us understand more about the person's underlying personality system.
INTERACTIONISM IN PERSONALITY: Chapter 4
Interactionism is the idea that the individuals behaviors are the product of dynamic interaction between personality and the psychological environment.

Some personality psychologists try to categorize people, situations, and behaviors into triple typologies.

Biological sciences treat the dynamic interaction between organisms and their environments as a given.

The intuition of consistency is neither paradoxical nor illusory: Personality coherence is seen in the individuals meaningful, stable situation- behavior signatures.
BRAIN-PERSONALITY LINKS: Chapter 6
William H. Sheldon was an American physician who classified individuals into three different body types and their corresponding temperaments.

More recently, Hans J. Eysenck measured brain wave and cardiovascular activity in introverts and extraverts to further understand the physiological differences that underlie these types.

The behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is the neurological system that may dispose individuals to withdraw from negative stimuli.

The behavioral activation system (BAS) is the neurological system that may lead individuals to seek out positive stimuli or rewards.
BRAIN-PERSONALITY LINKS: Continued- Chapter 6
The BAS and BIS systems have been linked to the experience of positive and negative events and affect, respectively, and like PA and NA, they operate independently of one another.

BAS and BIS research suggests that these are specific and distinct incentive and threat systems in the brain with important links to personality.

Sensation-seeking behavior has been linked to several biological factors.

The interactions between neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones that underlie the behavioral and psychological manifestations of personality seen to be multiple and complex and also interact with a host of social and psychological factors.
BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND CHANGE: Chapter 6
Personality psychologists utilize magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans to examine brain activity during various psychological experiences.

The amygdala mobilizes the body for action, readying it to fight or flight.

Biological treatments for psychological disorders favor pharmacotherapy, which makes use of a variety of drugs including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and minor tranquilizers.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY AND PERSONALITY: Chapter 6
At the evolutionary level of analysis, personality traits and individual differences reflect the processes of a natural selection and adaption.

For example, such traits as dominance, emotional stability, and sociability are seen as particularly robust because they have an especially significant role in mate selection and retention.

The evolutionary perspective provides a fresh view of behaviors from mate selection and jealousy to altruism and the development of fears.

Evolutionary theory emphasizes the adaptive value of flexibly allowing one;s behavior to take into account the requirements f the particular context. This requires carefully discriminating among situations.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: Chapter 14
George Kelly's perception of the person as a scientist helped bridge the theoretical gap between behavioral explanations of personality and social cognitive theory.

The social cognitive level was stimulated by the finding that the perceiver's mental representations and cognitive transformations of stimuli can determine their impact on the individual.

The cognitive revolution rejected the ideas of behaviorism that focused only on observable stimuli and responses, and instead embraced the study of mental processes such as thinking, knowledge, and memory.
ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY- Chapter 14
Albert Bandura called attention to the importance of observational learning for personality development and change.

Observational learning can help create or remove fears and other strong emotional reactions.

Human performance is dramatically improved by awareness of the rules or principles that influence the outcomes for behavior.

Bandura's theory views people as agentic and proactive, able to influence their future through forethought and symbolic processes.

Self-efficacy in this theory is a basic mechanism for enabling constructive change and self-regulation.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSON VARIABLES: WALTER MISCHEL- Chapter 14
Mischel (1973) reconceptualization of personality focuses on how the person's understanding of situations and their acquired psychological meanings guide his or her interactions with the situations encountered and self-generated. The expressions of these interactions play out in the stable if....then.....behavioral signatures of personality that characterize how the individual predictably deals with different types of situations.

The reconceptualization proposed a set of social cognitive person variables to characterize individual differences. They deal with how each person encodes (construes) different types of situations, and the expectancies and beliefs, affects, goals and values, and self-regulatory strategies and competencies that become activated in the interactions with those situations.

Mischel's theory of social cognitive person variables was influenced by George Kelly's personal construct theory and Julien Rotter's social learning theory and helped to integrate the two.

The assessment and functions of these person variables are illustrated with examples from Gary W.'s interactions with his social world.
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: Chapter 14
Assessments at the Social Cognitive Level of analysis tend to be specific and connected to treatment efforts, as exemplified in self-efficacy expectancy measures.

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) uses a word-association task to evaluate participants implicit level of self-esteem and diverse attitudes.
PERSONALITY CHANGE AND THERAPY: Chapter 14
Therapies at this level try to identify the person's disadvantageous ways of thinking and to encourage more adaptive ways of thinking, feeling, and solving problems.

Aaron Beck's cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) treats personal problems and depression by changing the way people encode themselves and their experiences to find more constructive ways of thinking and behaving.
COMMON THEMES: Chapter 14
Social cognitive approaches focus on how individuals select, attend to, and process information about the self and the world and react to it.

Reciprocal interactionism is a concept that recognizes that people's attributes and actions interact with the social environment continuously, each influencing the other.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development
ORAL Stage

ANAL Stage

PHALLIC Stage
Oral Stage
ORAL Stage
-0-2 years old

-Taking pleasure from cramming things into mouth, sucking, biting, chewing, running tongue over mouth.

-Pleasure from oral cavity

-Trying to gain infantile sexual pleasure from engaging in these types of activities.

-Frustrated because either over-gratified or under-gratified

-Highly symbolic
Anal Stage
2-3 years old

Migrating away from the mouth to the anus

Taking pleasure in idea of defecating or not defecating.

Process of letting go of pressure.
-Build up of pressure
- Release of pressure:tension reduction

-Lose a battle
- Body wants to do whatever it wants, whenever it wants
- Mother/authoritative figure wont let you because it is not acceptable

This is the moment in time when you first begin to notice

All about control

in context of anal stage, you develop the EGO***
Phallic stage
3-5 years old

Psychosexual energy migrating toward genitals

Urge, sese of pleasure, having fun

Little boy has this idea that because it feels so good and because its fun and he biologically knows how to use it, he wants to use it o his mother.

Sees little girl without penis
- OMG, why did they do that to her?
- Who took it???
- I dont wanna lose mine!
- What did she do for somebody to chop off her thing??

Because he has an ego he can grasp there is a man/father

Afraid of being punished for urge.

Develop SUPEREGO***
Penis envy
in Freudian psychoanalysis refers to the theorized reaction of a girl during her psychosexual development to the realization that she does not have a penis.
Primary Process Thinking
Not influenced by constraints of reality
Secondary Process Thinking
Functions more rationally, more sequential

Something you are seeking but logical clarification of what it is
(Strong) Fixation
Over/under gratified at particular stage

Shoves the psychosexual conflict into unconscious

Later on in life, an experience similar to the conflict will set off a trigger that will dominate your experience.

Ex: If you're fixated at the oral stage ad cant gain the satisfaction you're seeking, you'll engage in INTERJECTION: forming oa mental image of this creature that provides the gratification.

If you were over gratified you would be clamoring for more attention, if you were under gratified you would be inept, people would need to come to your rescue.

DSM categorizes disorders by fixation/partial fixation

According to Freud, everyone who is depressed has to be fixated at the oral stage

Anger directed towards the self (Freuds definition of depression)
Partial Fixation
Over/under gratification is less intense

Repression is less dramatic
A little bit more at pre-conscious level

Way of coping that you developed at partially fixated stage will dominate life (but not as completely as clinical depression)

Ex: Oral stage- dependent. needy, taking in, devouring
Anal Stage- Compulsive, control
Phallic Stage- Issues of own sexuality. (Freud calls it Narcissistic, dont confuse with other definitions)

If you're a man- issues of masculinity by either over performing OR reverse... retreating from all that in fear

If youre a woman... Virgin queen vs. Whore

Can only be partially fixated at one stage.

Personality Disorder

DSM categorizes disorders by fixation/partial fixation
Free Association
Saying anything that comes to mind

Analyst should be distant, detached and non-revealing

Blank screen against which patient projects his/her unconscious conflicts.

Aim of treatment: Have unconscious aches and pains become conscious

How treatment works:
At some point analyst will offer interpretation
Insight- emotional reliving of unconscious conflict

Abreaction (like catharsis)
Explosive reliving of psychosexual conflict

Last leg is working through the insight
Transference
a phenomenon in psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings from one person to another. One definition of transference is "the inappropriate repetition in the present of a relationship that was important in a person's childhood."[1] Another definition is "the redirection of feelings and desires and especially of those unconsciously retained from childhood toward a new object."[2] Still another definition is "a reproduction of emotions relating to repressed experiences, especially of childhood, and the substitution of another person ... for the original object of the repressed impulses."[3] Transference was first described by Sigmund Freud, who acknowledged its importance for psychoanalysis for better understanding of the patient's feelings.

Interpretation of dreams always comes down to psychosexual conflict.
Transference always comes down to psychosexual onflict
Psychodynamic Oriented Therapist
More influenced by Neo-Freud
Psychoanalyst
More in line with Freud (but in today's world, its used as a popular term, so not always accurate)
Harry Stack Sullivan
- emphasized the importance of personal relationships --> interpersonal relationships formulate who you are and who others are
- Claimed all infants were born with an inherent sense of linkage with significant others
- capacity for empathy --> if mother is distraught or if she's happy, child is experiencing exact same thing at exact same time
- Form Mental Representations of Significant Other divided into Good Mom and Bad Mom
Dynamism
Sullivan's term for a particular pattern of behavior; dynamics between you and significant other
Personifications
Subjective mental representations of self and significant others
Sullivan Self System
- form a representation of self
- also mentally representing the relationship between self and significant other --> personifications
- learning specifics of interactions and how to interact with significant others --> dynamisms
- Sullivan viewed the self system as energy transformations that are not frozen in time
- whole nature of self fundamentally embedded in social life, in those relationships that have mattered most to you
NOT-ME
- unconscious --> part of self shoved outside of awareness; like Freud's repression, but no psycho-sexual content
- by shoving NOT-ME into unconscious, you develop sense of conscious self in opposition to that ---> Very emotional young child is harshly scolded by father for crying all the time. Boy ultimately develops in opposition to what he has been told not to be or act like ---> becomes very macho and unemotional
Dynamism
Sullivan's term for a particular pattern of behavior; dynamics between you and significant other
Personifications
Subjective mental representations of self and significant others
NOT-ME
- unconscious --> part of self shoved outside of awareness; like Freud's repression, but no psycho-sexual content
- by shoving NOT-ME into unconscious, you develop sense of conscious self in opposition to that ---> Very emotional young child is harshly scolded by father for crying all the time. This traumatic experience is pushed into the unconscious. Boy ultimately develops in opposition to what he has been told not to be or act like ---> becomes very macho and unemotional
GOOD-ME
Conscious

personification that grows from experiences of reward and approval

mom good, me good

inborn capacity for empathy ---> empathy for mother creates link
BAD-ME
Conscious

Personification that grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval

Mom bad, Me bad

inborn capacity for empathy ---> empathy for mother creates link
Carl Jung
Heavily interested in analysis of dreams (but not driven by psychosexual interpretation).

Interested in idea that humans take sustenance in trying to find broader sense of meaning. Firsy psychologist to talk about human's need for meaning, spiritual, religious needs.
Alfred Adler
interested in how people cope.

What about people who cant come in for treatment? Aren't all that verbal/educated; how do you help them to overcome challenges in life?

Pragmatic approach to intervening.
Harry Stack Sullivan
Most important personal relationships formulate who you are, who others are.

All infants are born with an inherent sense of linkage with other people

Capacity for empathy
-if mother is distraught, child is experiencing exact same thing at exact same time.
-same with if she is happy

Dynamisms- Dynamics between you and significant other
BAD-MOM
infant's personification of mother that grows from experiences of unsatifaction
GOOD-MOM
infant's personification of mother that grows after infant has realized mother's tenderness
Motivation/Needs -Sullivan
1. Basic Need for SATISFACTION
A) Express and utilize
I. own CAPACITIES --> physical and emotional tools
II. emotions, perceptions, and thoughts
B) Retaining/Maintaining Connections

if price for expressing attitudes is losing relationship, you may forgo capacities to keep relationship OR you may go with capacities and forgo relationships (profound consequences in long run) ---> tenderness theorem

2. SECURITY

Motivation and need will determine what you recall of relationship with significant other
Tenderness Theorem
need for connection is greater tan need to express capacity (connection > expression of capacity) --- > we are more likely to give up on expression

Sullivan thought need for connection was SO huge that people should be able to stay in relationship and better express themselves in the relationship even if it is troubling

Fromm: disagreed ---> what if relationship is troubling? Should you stay or develop autonomous capacity to exit?
Functions of Self System
Guide what you see in the world

Direct nature of interpretations you have ---> guide perceptions and interpretations and direction of development

Self system has defensive functions ---> parallels with Freud's defense theories, but is a very different theory motivationally
- dissociation ---> blocking experiences from awareness
- selective inattention ---> selectively blocking only certain experiences from awareness


Freud's Reaction Formation similar to Sullivan's idea of pushing NOT-ME away and claiming to be the opposite
Sullivan's Stages (Levels of Cognition)
Sullivan recognized three levels of perceiving things:

Prototaxic

Parataxic

Syntaxic

Conscious
PROTOtaxic
experiences that are impossible to put into words or communicate to others

newborn infants exerience images on a prototaxic level

before language; no schemas; everything unconscious
PARAtaxic
experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to actually communicate

no actual language; instead it is a "private" language ---> like baby talk ---> understood by mother (significant other)

Partially unconscious ---> outside of awareness
SYNtaxic
experiences that can be properly communicated to others

consensual validation - learn to use words in a way other people can understand; learn symbols that others in society share; use language as other people use it --->engage and exchange; be understood

crucial for development
Sullivan vs. Freudians
Sullivan was interested in being engaged and emotionally interested in therapy

Broke distant boundaries that Freudians had ---> actually feeling what is going on with patient
Trait-Dispositional Approach
Big Five Factors:
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Psychodynamic-Motivational Approach
Inner urges/Drives

Unconscious parts of mind

id, ego, superego, psycho-sexual drives
Behavioral-Conditional Approach
learning/conditioning of behavior

how context influences behavior
Social-Cognitional Approach
how someone reacts in social settings

cognitive processes

focuses on empirical research
Biological Approach
measurements of bodily fuctions
Humanistic Approach
broad/ more general

philosophical

less scientific
More Self System - Sullivan
develops in opposition to the "not me" ---> conscious ideas will develop in opposition of trauma that determines "what you are not"

If you are pushing things out of awareness, your whole self system will be fundamentally defensive ---> you will be defensive about yourself
Eric Erickson's Stages of Development
1. Oral Sensory Stage - age 0 to 1
trust and optimism form

2. Muscular Anal Stage - age 1 to 2
form concept of shame; sense of control over self

3. Locomotor Genital Stage - age 3 to 5
form initiative and guilt

4. Latency Period - age 6 to early puberty
learn consciousness

5. Puberty
identification of role

6. Early adulthood
form intimacy

7. Young and middle adult

8. Mature adult

- provided more humanistic insight
- Different than Freud's model of development ---> development does not stop at age 5. It continues on into adulthood
Security Operations of Sullivan's Self System
designed to maintain the conscious belief that you hold of yourself when something threatens your self system

you selectively attend to things you believe about yourself and ignore those things that you do not

conscious ideas of yourself determine interpretation of your reality ---> choices guided by your conscious ideas

Sullivan challenged Freud's ideas about psychosexual conflict ---> Freud said there is no reason for things that are good to be in the unconscious
Object Relation Theory
development of the mind in relation to others in the environment

the way that we relate to people and situations in our adult life is programmed into us by the way we experience our parents as infants
i.e. A man who is suspicious of his boss (while no other workers are) might be viewing him through a template of his frustrating mother when he was a child ---> child's needs for satisfaction from his significant other (mother) may not have been met. The mother may have worked long hours and not provided enough attention. This frustration (the object) may have been pushed into unconscious and carried over in adult life ---> object is then used to help in understanding relationships and predicting people's behavior

Self relates to Objects in the Unconscous ---> Objects are usually internalized images of ones mother or father; maybe real (breast) or things in ones inner world (internalized image of others)

Objects are initially comprehended in the infant's mind by their function. The breast that feeds the hungry infant (satisfies his needs) is the "good breast." The breast that leaves the baby hungry (does not satisfy needs) is the "bad breast"

Internal objects/images (Personifications - Sullivan) are formed in the patterns of ones experience with their significant other (dynamisms - Sullivan)
Melanie Klein
Differs from Freud in saying humans seek satisfaction through relationships with real people, rather than seeking satisfaction through drives.

Objects (mother's breast) played on important role in early development; mother-infant relationship is most important to personality development

Splitting - splitting the feelings of ones relationship with significant other into Good or Bad; Good objects or Bad objects
Skinner and Behaviorism - Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
We don't need to know what's going on inside the head ---> behavior is controlled by its consequence

Operant - randomly emitted behavior, not elicited

Reinforcement - increases probability of behavior occurring again

Shaping by successive approximations ---> tossing food pellets to a dog until they get "shake" right

Punishment - decreases the probability of behavior occurring again; not a reinforcement