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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Personality Psychology
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the scientific study of the psychological forces that make people uniquely themselves
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Eight Key Aspects of Personality
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1) Unconscious (not aware of)
2) Ego forces (Who am I?) 3) Cognitive (How we process things) 4) Biological 5) Conditioning (responses to environment) 6) Traits (unique) 7) Spiritual (meaning of life) 8) Person-situation interaction |
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The Zodiac
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people trying to understand personality
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Personality and Science
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-scientific methods are used to test personality theories
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Where do personality theories come from?
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Deductive approach (see what happens to group of individuals), Inductive approach (observations, taking specific examples and making theories), theories from related disciplines, or combinations
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Deductive Approach
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-See if it happens to group of individuals
-Laws and Principles of Personality (Generalizations) ->Deductive approach-> -Behaviors and characteristics of individuals |
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Inductive Approach
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-Observations
-Take specific examples and make theories -Behaviors and characteristics of individuals ->Inductive approach-> -Laws and Principles of Personality (Generalizations) |
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Perspectives:
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1) psychoanalytic
2) neo-analytic 3) cognitive 4) biological 5) traits 6) humanistic 7) person-situation interactions |
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Psychoanalytic
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attention to unconscious
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neo-analytic
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emphasis of self.
-Internal drive -External demands |
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biolgoical
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tendencies and limits of physiology, genetic, etc
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behavioral
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how learning shapes you
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traits
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skills
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Humanistic
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Spiritual, self-fulfillment
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Personality began in the theater
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people wore masks, many people could play the same person
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Renaissance philosophers
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challenged if things were spiritual and if we should listen to religious leaders
-mind body debate -asked what consciousness is |
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Evolutionary biology
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-people are subject to the laws of nature rather than divine control
-Charles Darwin -pass genes to offspring |
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Gordan Allport
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examined the underlying organization of each individual's personality
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Kurt Lewin
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Gestalt psychology
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Henry Murray
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longitudinal design
-one personality now, different one in year later |
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Margaret Mead
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anthropologist who highlighted the importance of cross-cultural comparisons
-personality is influenced by culture |
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Point of learning about personality
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-Learn more about individuals
-Learn more about people more generally |
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Subject Assessment
Strengths and Weaknesses |
Measurement that relies on interpretation.
Strength: Complex phenomena may be examined and valuable insight gained. Weaknesses: Different observers may make different judgments |
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Objective Assessment
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Measurement that is not dependent on the individual making the assessment
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Reliability
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the consistency of scores that are expected to be the same
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Test-Retest Reliability
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-measure of consistency over time
-expect scores to be the same |
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Internal Consistency Reliability
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-Split-half reliability (the correlation between two halves of a test)
-Cronback's Alpha (the average of all possible split-half correlations |
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Construct Validity
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the extent to which a test truly measures a theoretical construct
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Convergent Validity
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a measure is related to what it should be related to
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Discriminant validity
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a measure is NOT related to what it should NOT be related to
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Criterion-related validity
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the measure can predict important outcome criteria
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Content validity
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The measure contains items that represent the entire domain of the theoretical construct
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Item selection
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-Items should be clear and relatively simple, intercorrelated, don't have double questions, don't make assumptions
-Total score of the assessment should have a normal distribution |
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Response Sets
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A bias in responding to test items that is unrelated to the personality characteristic being measured
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Problems with Intelligence testing
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-test can be biased
-use questions that are specific to cultures |
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Acquiescence response set
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people want to agree
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Social desirability reponse set
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people respond in a way that wont make people think less of them
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To reduce the problem of response sets
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-Reverse-code some items
-Use neutral wording -include social desirability measure -use several different methods of assessment |
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Item selection
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-Items should be clear and relatively simple, intercorrelated, don't have double questions, don't make assumptions
-Total score of the assessment should have a normal distribution |
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Response Sets
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A bias in responding to test items that is unrelated to the personality characteristic being measured
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Acquiescence response set
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people want to agree
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Social desirability reponse set
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people respond in a way that wont make people think less of them
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To reduce the problem of response sets
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-Reverse-code some items
-Use neutral wording -include social desirability measure -use several different methods of assessment |
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Ethnic and Gender Bias
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-a characteristic that is a strength in one group may be perceived as a weakness or deficiency in another
-all tests make assumptions about the background of the test-taker -Use care in interpreting results (always consider the context) |
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Types of Personality Measures
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1) Self-report tests
2) Q-sort tests 3) Judgements by Others 4) Biological Measures 5) Behavioral Measures 6) Behavioral Observations 7) Interview 8) Expressive Behavior 9) Document Analysis/Life Stories 10) Projective Tests |
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Self report tests
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-Pencil and paper tests
-report own feelings about self -most common type of test -Ex: MMPI, BFI, ACT |
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Q-Sort Tests
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-person makes comparisons among his/her own characteristics
-Uses a stack of cards, one characteristic per card -sort cards into piles indicating how descriptive each card is of him/her -forced number of cards in each level -normalizes use of levels across test-takers |
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Judgement by Others
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-someone else answers questions about the person being measured
-some traits are easier to judge than others -used for adults and children |
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Biological Measures
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assumes that the nervous system is an important element of personality
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Modern biological measures:
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-EEG - can provide event-related potentials
-PET - brain in REM sleep, horizontal view, nose on top, lightest areas have highest activity -MRI -fMRI -Hormonal levels -Chromosomal analysis |
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Behavioral Observation
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-records the actual behavior of a person
-types of behavioral observations: simple counts of a specific behavior, coding videotaped interactions, experience sampling |
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Interviews
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-Unstructured interviews (typically yield rich information, but validity is questionable)
-Structured interviews (more valid, but usually do not reveal individual nuances |
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Expressive behavior
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-The analysis of how people stand, move, speak, etc
-Includes: speech rate, voice quality, gaze patterns, posture, gesture |
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Document Analysis/Life Stories
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-involves the careful analysis of writings such as letters and diaries
-can be a very rich source of information ex: Allport's 'Letter from Jenny' |
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Projective Tests
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-present as unstructured or ambiguous stimulus, task, or situation
-test-taker provides an interpretation -goal is to gain access to unconscious motives and concerns -EX: Draw-a-person test, Rorschach Inkblot, Thematic Apperception Test |
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Freud Movie
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-Children aren't innocent
-Cocaine as therapeudic -Hypnosis -Diseases caused by ideas -Childhood abuse -Oedipus Conflict |
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Psychoanalytic Approach
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Personality theory based on the writings of Sigmund Freud
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The Unconscious
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the portion of the mind of which a person is not aware of
-psychoanalytic techniques are used to access the unconscious (Hypnosis, Free association [keep going on and on and see what comes out], dream analysis |
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Dreams
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-The 'Royal Road' to the unconscious
-Manifest content (the content of a dream that a person remembers) -Latent content (hidden psychological meaning) |
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Parts of the mind
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Id (primitive drives and emotions - pleasure)
Ego (balances Id, Superego, and Reality - reality) Superego - (internalized social norms - morality) |
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Famous Freudian Slip was by:
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Bush
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Psychosexual Development
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-The development of the psyche (mind)
-Progresses in stages as the libido (desire, sexual energy) is redirected to different parts of the body |
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Psychosexual stages
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-Oral
-Anal -Phallic -Latency -Genital |
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Psychosexual Stages: Oral Stage
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Theme: Infants are driven to satisfy the drives of hunger and thirst
Conflict: Child must give up breast feeding Fixation: Depedency, Preoccupation with oral acquistion |
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Psychosexual Stages: Anal Stage
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Theme: Child receives pleasure from relieving self of bodily waste
Conflict: child is 'toilet trained' Fixation: Preoccupation with neatness, excessive 'bathroom humor', 'anal-retentive' characteristics |
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Psychosexual Stages: Phallic Stage
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Theme: Child gains pleasure through the genitals. Oedipus Complex - Boys desire mother, Castration anxiety. Electra Complex - girls suffer penis envy.
Conflict: Overt sexual behavior socially unacceptable Fixation: vanity, narcissism, inability to love |
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Psychosexual Stages: Latency Stage
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Theme: Psychosexual energy is channeled into academic and social pursuits
-Conflicts and fixations do not occur during this stage |
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Genital Stage
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Theme: The individual gain satisfaction from mature relationships
-this stage is achieved if a person makes it through the other stages with enough available sexual energy -no strong fixations -'normal' (conventional) adult sexuality |
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Defense Mechanisms
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-The ego must balance the demands of the id, the superego, and reality (ie, the environment)
-**Ego processes that distort reality to protect the individual from anxiety -prevent threatening |
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Repression
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-pushes threatening thoughts and ideas into the unconscious
-explanation for: PTSD, repressed memories, false memories |
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Reaction Formation
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-hides threatening impulses by over-emphasizing their opposite
-explanation for: homophobic people being gay, politicians having sexcapades promoting family values |
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Denial
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-refusal to acknowledge anxiety-provoking stimuli
-explanation for: not acknowledging the sudden death of a loved one -interpreting a terrible fight with a spouse as just a 'lovers quarrel' |
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Projection
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-attributing anxiety-provoking impulse or thoughts to others
-explanation for: always being suspicious of others, extreme political opinions |
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Displacement
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-shifting one's unconscious aggression or fears to a safer target (hydraulic model)
-explanation for : kicking a dog |
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Sublimation
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-dangerous urges are transformed into positive, socially meaningful motivations
-explanation for: artistic creativity, community leadership |
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Regression
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-protecting the individual by returning to an earlier, 'safer' time of life
-explanation for: a child with a new baby sibling wanting a bottle again, a distressed individual treating their spouse as a parent |
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Carl Jung
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-Says we have two personalities
-1) Child, 2) What he appears to be -Thinks he is a gentleman in his past life -Thinks dreams and visions are communication from beyond -Heavily influenced by Freud |
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Jung:
-The mind/psyche has three parts |
-Ego (Jung focused on Ego)
-The personal unconscious -The collective unconscious |
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Jung:
Ego |
-developed around age 4
-the conscious part of personality -embodies the sense of self -similar to Freud's concept of Ego |
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Jung:
The personal unconscious |
-contains thoughts that are not currently part of conscious awareness
*doesn't just have things we are not aware of, but also not thinking about. -not only threatening and unacceptable material, but all non-conscious material -contains past and 'future' material |
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The collective unconscious
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-a deeper level of unconcscious
-shared with the rest of humanity -contains archetypes (universal emotional symbols) |
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Archetypes
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-Animus/Anima
-Persona and Shadow -Mother -Hero and Demon |
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Archetypes:
Animus/Anima |
-male element in a woman/female element in a man
-each woman has masculine side and innate knowledge of what it feels like to be a man and vise versa |
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Archetypes:
Persona and Shadow |
-socially acceptable front vs. dark and unacceptable side of personality
-differences between outward appearances and inward selves |
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Mother
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-embodiment of generativity and fertility
-mothers can be good, mothers can be evil |
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Archetypes:
Hero and Demon |
-strong force for good vs. cruelty and evil
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Complex
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-a group of emotionally charged thoughts that are related to a particular theme
-Jung created word association test for this |
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Four functions of the mind
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-Sensing
-Thinking -Feeling -Intuiting |
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Two major attitudes of the mind:
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1) Extroversion - directs psychic energy toward things in the external world
2) Introversion - directs psychic energy inward |
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Typology
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-4 functions [of mind] x 2 attitudes = 8 types
-Each person has a 'best fit' to one type -Determined by the person's dominant function and dominant attitude -Forms the basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator |
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Adler
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childhood illness - "frail child"
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Individual Psychology shows
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importance of social conditions
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3 fundamental social issues [from the Personality]
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1) Occupational tasks (choose and pursue a career that makes them feel worthwhile
2) Social Tasks 3) Love Tasks *Expanded on Freud's motivations, made them about more than just sex |
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Central core of personality:
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People strive for superiority
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Inferiority Complex
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overexaggeation of shortcomings
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Superiority Complex
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Overcompensation
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Organ inferiority
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everyone is born with some physical weakness
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Aggressive Drive
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reaction to perceived helplessness (the drive to lash out against something you are unable to achieve)
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Masculine Protest
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-individuals attempt to be competent and independent (both males and females)
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Superiority striving
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striving to obtain power and superiority over one's own inferiority
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Perfection striving
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striving to meet fictional goals; fictional goals reflect an individual's view of perfection
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Birth order and family dynamics:
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-First born: independent; may try to nurture younger children
-Second born: rivalry and competition, higher inferiority complex -Last born: more pampered, feels pressure from siblings |
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Birth order findings from Frank Sulloway
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-first born (success and achievement)
-last born (revolutionary and creative) |
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Karen Horney
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-Feminist neo-analytic theory
-Rejection of Freudian notion of penis envy -Envy of masculine freedoms and privileges |
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Basic anxiety
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a child's fear of being alone, helpless, and insecure
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Styles of coping with basic anxiety
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-Passive (complying)
-Aggressive (fighting) -Withdrawn (disengaging) |
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Different aspects of the self
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-Real self (the inner core of personality)
-Despised self (feelings of inferiority and shortcomings) -Ideal self (one's view of perfection, 'Tyranny of the Should') -Goal of psychoanalysis is acceptance of the Real Self |
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Neurotic Coping Strategies when alienated from the Real self:
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-Moving Toward: striving to make others happy and gain love, see themselves as unworthy of love, try to gain affection
-Move against: striving for power and recognition -Move away: withdrawl of emotional investment |
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Erik Erikson
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-neoanalytic stage theory
-continues throughout life -structured as a series of 'ego crises' to be resolved (outcome of successful resolution of each stage is an 'ego skill' mastered |
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Erikson's Stage Theory
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4 early stages
1) Trust vs. Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs. Shame 3) Initiative vs. Guilt 4) Industry vs. Inferiority |
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Erikson's Stage Theory: Early Stages
Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust |
Ego Skill gained: Hope
Age: Infancy |
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Erikson's Stage Theory: Early Stages
Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame |
Ego skill gained: Will
Age: Early Childhood |
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Erikson's Stage Theory: Early Stages
Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt |
Ego skill gained: Purpose
Age: Early to mid-childhood |
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Erikson's Stage Theory: Early Stages:
Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority |
EGo skill gaineD: Competence
Age: Mid-to Late Childhood |
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Erikson's Stage Theory (Later stages)
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4 stages
1) Identity vs. Role Confusion 2) Intimacy vs. Isolation 3) Generativity vs. Stagnation 4) Ego Integrity vs. Despair |
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Erikson's Stage Theory (later stages)
Ego Crisis: Identitiy vs. Role Confusion |
Ego skill gained: Loyalty
Age: Teenage years |
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Erikson's Stage Theory (later stages)
Ego Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation |
Ego skill gained: Love
Age: Early Adulthood |
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Erikson's Stage Theory (later stages)
EGo Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation |
Ego skill gained: Caring
Age: Middle Adulthood |
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Erikson's Stage Theory (later stages)
Ego Crisis: Ego Integrity vs. Despair |
Ego Skill Gained: Wisdom
Age: Late Adulthood |
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Biological Aspects of Personality:
Direct Genetic Effects |
Natural selection and functionalism
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Natural selection
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adaptive characteristics emerge over generations
-includes behavioral tendencies and emotions - 'personality' |
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Evolutionary personality theory
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-modern application of Darwin's ideas to individual difference in personality
-attention is focused on the function of a characteristic in survival |
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Syndromes affecting personalities
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*Angelman Syndrome
-a congenital (inborn) disorder caused by a defect on chromosome 15 -happy, cheerful, attractive, friendly -mental retardation and jerky movement *Williams Syndrome -excessively sociable, limited intellect |
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Behavioral Genomics
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the study of how genes affect behavior
-how human genes function together with each other and the environment to influence behavior |
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Temperament
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-Stable individual differences in emotional reactivity
-Longitudinal studies suggest that characteristics tend to remain stable over time as children mature |
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Genetic Effects Through Temperament-
Four basic aspects of temperament: |
1) Activity - vigourous motion (vs. passivitiy)
2) Emotionalitiy - Easily aroused (vs. calm and stable) 3) Sociability - approaches and enjoys others (vs. aloof) 4) Impulsivity - aggressive and cold (vs. conscientious and friendly) |
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Eysenck's Model
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Introversion-extroversion and the nervous system:
-Extroverts have a low level of brain arousal -Introverts have a higher level of internal arousal |
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Approach, Inhibition, and Regulation: Jeffrey Gray
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Thought there were two relevant biological systems
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Jeffrey Gray's Two relevant biological systems
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1) Behavioral Activation system
-oreinting response to novel situations and things that are punishing. Overactive --> anxiety 2) Behavioral activation system -(behavioral approach system) -regulates our response to rewards -overactive--> impulsivity |
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Sensation Seeking and Addiction-Proneness
-Zuckerman's theory |
-those high on 'sensation seeking' have a low level of internal arousal so they are drawn to novel and exciting experiences
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Twins as a Source of Data
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-Identical twins vs. fraternal twins (makes it possible to detect genetic influences on personality)
-Minnesota Twin Study (similarities in personality between people who have the same genetic makeup) |
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The Case of Schizophrenia
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1) Twin studies have helped to show that schizophrenia is genetically influenced
-structural abnormalities have been found in the brains of schizophrenics -there is a 'genetic predisposition' to schizophrenia 2) However, it is not simply a genetic disease -concordance between identical twins is far from perfect |
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Sexual Identity and Homosexuality
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-twin studies have shown that homosexuality has a genetic influence
-appears to be some environmental influences as well |
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Mediated effects of Biology
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means one variable works through anothe rto case an outcome
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Effects through environmental toxins
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Poisoning
-"Mad as a Hatter" -lead posioning and cognitive/behavioral deficits in children -Managanese miners and fighting behavior |
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Effects through physical illness
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Personality can sometimes drastically change as a result of
-alzheimer's disease -strokes -temporal lobe epilepsy -various surgical procedures -pick's disease |
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Effects from legal and illegal drugs
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-widely prescribed drugs such as tranquilizers, sleeping pills, and various antidepressants can ahve short-term and sometimes long-term effects on personality
-Cocaine: paranoia |
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Effects from the Creation of Environment
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-Biology can affect personality by affection the environments in which we find ourselves
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Do looks reveal personality?
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Somatotypes
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Somatotypes: Three body types (Sheldon)
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1) Mesomorphs
-muscular, large-boned athletic types 2)Ectomorphs -slender, bookworm types 3) Endomorphs -overweight, supposedly good-natured types *Overly simplistic, but there may be some metabolic or physiological link |
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Effects from Reactions of Others
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-physical characteristics influence the way other treat us and thereby mold our views of the world - our 'personalities'
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Physical attractiveness stereotypes
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-people tend to expect attractive people to do good and be good
-adults have higher expectations for attractive children |
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Personality and Public Policy
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-misuses of knowledge regarding genetics
-Social Darwinism and the 'right' to dominate/kill others based on survival of the fittest -immigration laws to limit the population of 'undesirables' -Eugenics ("Improve" the gene pool by sterilizing poor people) -Nazi dream of a "master race" and genocide -The Human Genome Project - what are the implications? |
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The Biological Approach:
Advantages |
-Emphasizes the limits imposed by genetics
-Acknowledges the effects of biological influences -Can be combined with other approaches |
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The Biological Approach:
Limits |
-minimizes human potential for growth and change
-danger of misuse -uses biological concepts, which may not be appropriate for psychological phenomena |
