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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What method does Structrualism value? |
Analytic Introspection - Observers determine what makes a scene. It is subjective experience. |
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What does Gestalt Psychology suggest? |
Perception is a dynamically organised whole picture. Items are grouped together perceptually. |
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What is Psychophysics? |
An approach to studying psychology which relies on lab studies investigating relationships between highly controlled stimuli and responses. |
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What is connectionist psychology? |
An approach to study which suggests that phenomena can be explained by networks of simple and often uniform units. The brain is a form of computer. |
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What studies are important to discovering localisation of functions? |
- Case/Clinical studies - Lesion studies |
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What is single-unit recording and who used it to investigate visual movement perception? |
Use of microelectrodes to record single cells. - Hubel and Weisel. |
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What technique are CT, fMRI and EEG scans examples of? |
Brain imaging: - Measures of response of cells to stimuli. |
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What are the 4 possible outcomes in signal detection theory? |
- Hit - Miss - False Alarm - Correct Rejection |
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What is d Prime and how is it conducted in Signal detection theory? |
d Prime is an index of observer sensitivity. It is measured by taking Z score for hits and subtracting Z score for misses. |
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What is papillae? |
A group of taste buds (which contain receptors). |
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What is the life span of taste buds? |
10 days. |
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How many receptors are present in a taste bud? |
50-150 receptors. |
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What are the 5 'best taste selectivity' types of receptor fibres? |
1.) Sweet 2.) Salty 3.) Sour 4.) Bitter 5.) Umami (good taste) |
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Explain taste adaption |
Adaption and desensitisation to taste can occur. - adaption to sour taste reduces sourness and water will taste sweet. - adaption to sweet tastes will cause water to taste sour. Is this similar to visual colour afterimages? |
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Where are smell receptors dominant? |
Nostril and contralateral side of nostril (although nostrils project to both sides.) |
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Explain the neurology of smell |
Specialised Receptors and free nerve endings in cilia project to the olfactory mucosa in the brain. |
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How long do receptors in the olfactory epithlium last? |
About 60 days |
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Explain input into the somatosensory cortex |
Input comes via the dorsal root ganglia and brainstem (via thalamus) from: - skin touch receptors - proprioception receptors in and around limbs |
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What evidence suggests touch has a social function? |
- Harlow's Monkeys - Retarded growth in rats without grooming. |
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Where is the greatest touch acuity? |
Palm of hand |
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How can we measure touch? |
- Raised dots tests. - Tactile gratings - Von-Frey's probes of pressure sensitivity. |
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What are the 4 main touch sensory receptors? |
1.) Meissner's Corpuscles - upper skin layer. 2.) Merkel's Discs - Alongside corpuscles. 3.) Ruffini Endings - In skin dermis layer. 4.) Pacirian corpuscles - Lower skin layers. |
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What is meant by the two-point threshold? |
Minimum distance 2 points are perceived as separate on an area. |
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What is the relationship between the somatosensory cortex and two point thresholds? |
Consistent relationship between somatosensory cortex area size and size of two point thresholds. - related to sensory neuron density. |
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How is balance measured by the vestibular system? |
A combination of utricle and semi-circular canals in the inner ear. - liquid brushes against cilia, stimulating directional perception. |
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What is the vestibular-ocular reflex? |
Mediation of reflective eye movements to compensate for head movement and to stabilise the visual image. |
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What causes motion sickness? |
When one system indicates a stationary environment but another system indicates movement. |
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What is sound? |
A longitudinal wave in some medium such as air. |
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What is meant by sound frequency? |
Number of waveform cycles per second. |
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What is meant by sound pitch? |
- Rate of vibrations from low to high. Represented as tone quality. |
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What is meant by sound loudness? |
Amplitude (height) of wave. |
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What is meant by sound phase? |
The part of the cycle reached at a given moment in time. |
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How is sound waveform plotted? |
Time by amplitude |
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Sound is funneled through the pinna, through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane which vibrates with sound. What is meant by these terms? |
Sound is funneled through the external ear, through the ear canal to the ear drum which vibrates with sound. |
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How does sound reach the oval window of the cochlea? |
The mallus (hammer) connects with the tympanic membrane (ear drum) and transmits via the incus and stapes to the oval window of the cochlea. |
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Why is the process of connections between the pinna and oval window essential? |
To funnel out excess vibrations, as air is less resistant to movement than the fluid inside the cochlea. |
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What are the two main chambers of the cochlea? |
- Scala vestibuli - Scala tympani |
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What is the membrane in the cochlear partion called? |
Basilar membrane |
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How does cochlear coding occur? |
1.) The stapes push on the oval window, displacing fluid in the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. 2.) The basilar membrane is deformed. 3.) The part of the basilar membrane where maximum displacement occurs is where cilia is brushed. 4.) Cilia form synapses with dendrites of bipolar neurons whose axons bring auditory information to the brain. |
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What does duplex theory suggest? |
Auditory localisation happens through: 1.) Interaural time difference 2.) Interaural level difference - difference in intensite |
Auditory localisation |
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What auditory phenomenon has not yet been solved? |
Why we are able to identify separate sounds within the mixture of sounds entering out ears. |
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What range of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible light? |
400-700nm |
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What is the role of the cornea and lens? |
To ensure that the object being viewed will fall into focus 16.8mm behind the centre of the eye. |
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What is the role of the cillary muscles? |
Accommodation - they relax and contrast to change the shape of the lens to ensure focus works. |
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What happens to the pupil when light increases? |
The pupil diameter decreases allowing less light in. |
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What is meant by transduction? |
The process by which the photoreceptors convert light energy into neural activity. |
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How many photoreceptors can be found in the retina? |
100 million |
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Explain the two types of photoreceptor in the retina |
1.) Rod cells - sensitive to luminance - 120 million 2.) Cone cells - colour sensitive - 6-7 million - concentrated in the fovea (centre of the retina) |
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How do photoreceptors and bipolar cells transmit information? |
By graded potentials: - graded amount of neurotransmitter depended on intensity of light. |
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Explain the two types of bipolar cells in the retina |
1.) ON bipolars: - activated by increase in photon catch. 2.) OFF bipolars: - activated by a decrease in photon catch. Cone bipolars have both ON and OFF variants and transmit to ganglion cells. Rod variants have only ON variants and transmit to ganglion cells via amacrine cells. |
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Explain Lateral Inhibition in the retina |
Horizontal cells modulate signals from photoreceptors to bipolar cells. They inhibit activation of the activated cell's surrounding bipolar cells. |
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Explain the 4 ganglion cell variants in the retina |
1.) Biplexiform ganglion cells: - Measures ambient light and may control pupil diameter. - Measures ambient light and may control pupil diameter. 2.) Bistratisfied ganglion cells: - Only respond at high light level.- Show spectral opponency and of blue/yellow on/off variants. 3.) Midget ganglion cells: - Respond at high light levels. - Spatial opponency. - Spectral opponency of Red/Green 4.) Parasol Ganglion cells: - Active at low light only. - Spatial opponency but no colour opponency |
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What is a centre versus surround receptive field? |
A single ganglion cell receives input from several photoreceptors. These collectively make the centre versus surround receptive fields. ON and OFF centre ganglions exist so the brain can detect spatial differences in light sources. |
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How do spatial receptive fields work In the retina? |
A single ganglion cell receives input from several photoreceptors. These make up centre vs surround receptive fields. ON and OFF centre ganglion cells allow the brain to detect increase of decrease of lights from different sources. |
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Explain how Spectral Receptive Fields work in the retina |
ON and OFF centre ganglion cells work on the basis of colour or luminance. They either fire or inhibit. |
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How does information travel from the retina to the LGN? |
Neural signals travel along the optic nerves of each eye to reach the optic chiasm. Here, information from the left visual field of both eyes joins and travels to the contralateral side's LGN. -Likewise to the right visual field. |
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What are layers 1 and 2 of the LGN? |
Magnocellular layers: - Receives input from parasol ganglion cells. |
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Explain cell layers 3-6 of the LGN: |
Parvocellular layers: - Smaller detail cells - Input from midget ganglion cells (red/green) |
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Explain the koniocellular layers of the LGN |
Lie at the bottom of each layer. Receive input from bistratisfied cells (blue/yellow). |
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What cells in the LGN receive input from the contralateral eye? |
1, 4 and 6 |
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What is the function of the LGN? |
Sharpen spatial responses by working as a relay station, modifying receptive fields. To enhance sudden changes in stimulation by modulating firing patterns. |
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What is the Primary Visual Cortex (V1) also known as? |
- Brodman area 17. - The Striate Cortex |
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How many layers are in the V1, and where do they receive input from? |
6 Layers: - Layers 2 and 3 input from koniocellular LGN. - Layers 4CAlpha input from magnocellular. - Layers 4CBeta receive input from parvocellular LGN. - Layers 5 and 6 feedback to the LGN. |
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What are ocular dominance columns? |
Segregation of left and right eyes in the V1, known as ocular dominance columns. |
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What are orientation columns in the V1? |
Perpendicular to ocular dominance columns. Vertically show all cells responding to the same orientation. Oblique penetration shows gradual receptive field. Allows orientation of contrast to perceive shapes. |
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Explain blobs in the V1 |
Sensitive to brightness and colour. They are part of the parvocellular pathway. They are double-oponent: - Centre stimulation, lateral inhibition. |
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Explain the properties of cells in V1 |
- Receptive fields are centre-surround. - Larger receptive fields than LGN. - More selective. - Elongated receptive fields (detect bars) - 3 types of orientation selective cells: 1.) Simple cells 2.) Complex cells 3.) Hypercomplex cells |
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Explain simple V1 cells |
- Only fire if they perceive collective firing from a specific elongated collection of LGN cells (orientation selective) - detect edges and bars through excitatory and inhibitory regions. |
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Explain Complex V1 cells |
- Summated from several simple cells which share the same orientation (giving them a larger receptive field). - No ON/OFF regions, only respond to matching orientation. - Can detect motion of object. |
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Explain Hyper Complex cells in the V1 |
Generated by summation of complex cells. - activity dependent on orientation and length. |
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Explain V1 topography |
- Receptive fields across V1 form an ordered topographic map of the visual field. - The fovea has a disproportionately large area of the V1 devoted to it, known as the cortex magnification factor. |
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Explain the Magnocellular channel in the V1 |
- Analysis of motion. - Receive input in the LGN from parasol ganglion cells. - Simple cells in 4C respond to light bar orientation. - Complex cells in 4B are orientation and direction specific. |
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Explain the parvocellular channel in the V1 |
- Analysis of shape. - 4C beta projects to blobs in layers 2 and 3. - Complex cells are orientation selective. - Colour/opponent organisation. |
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What are the two post V1 pathways? |
1.) Dorsal and motion magnocellular ('where?') Pathway. - posterior and parietal cortex 2.) Ventral and object pavocellular ('what?') Pathway. - inferior temporal lobe |
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Explain V2 |
- Known as the pre-striate cortex and Brodman area 18. - Map of visual space represented. - Responds to orientation, spatial frequency (motion) and colour. - 3 channels continued from LGN and V1. |
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Explain V3 |
- Brodman area 19 - Not well defined. - Cells respond to motion of targets moving together coherently. |
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Explain the Magnocellular pathway in the cortex |
- LGN - V1 - V2. - Separates rostal into V5 in the medial superior temporal area. |
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Explain V5 |
Part of magnocellular pathway. - Medial superior temporal - 7-10 times larger receptive neurons to V1. - Motion perception and direction of eye movement projections. - Arranged in direction of motion columns. - Selective for: Linear motion, radius motion, circular motion. |
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Explain the parvocellular pathway |
LGN - V1 - V2 - V4 - Colour processing Involved in attentional modulation. |
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Explain V4 |
- Colour processing. - Input from blob and interblob regions of V1. - Orientation and colour selective. - Other areas must also be involved however. - Tuned for orientation, spatial frequency and colour. - distincts and responds to specific objects. - Involved in attentional modulation. |
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What are 2 functions of colour perception? |
1.) Perceptual Segregation to identify objects. 2.) Signaling for survival value. |
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What 3 Ps are required to see colour? |
1.) Physics (light) 2.) Physiology (receptors) 3.) Psychology (perception) |
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What are the 3 dimensions of light/colour? |
1.) Hue - wavelength (colour) 2.) Saturation - Purity of hue 3.) Brightness |
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What does Trichromantic theory suggest? |
We have 3 types of cones, especially sensitive to blue, green and red. If all 3 cones are stimulated equally, we perceive white. - Explains retinal cones. |
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What does opponent process theory suggest? |
We have three pairs of receptors: 1.) Red/green 2.) Blue/yellow 3.) Black/white - Explains receptors in the LGN and V1. |
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What is dichromancy? |
Vision with only 2/3 cone types. - Protanopia - No L cones - Deutranopia - No M cones - Tritanopia - No S cones |
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What is monochromacy? |
Either only having rod vision, or only having a single type of cone. |
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What is cerebral achromatopsia? |
Lesions in the visual cortex, usually V4, resulting in colour blindness. |
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What is figure-ground processing? |
-Focussed attention determines figures and background. - Explains reversible figures e.g. old vs young woman. |
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What is grouping as a function of form principle? |
- Boundaries form objects. - Gestalt Psychology. |
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What are the 7 laws of Gestalt Psychology in perceiving form? |
1.) Proximity 2.) Symmetry 3.) Similarity 4.) Continuity 5.) Closure 6.) Common fate 7.) Likelihood |
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Why do we perceive some objects as impossible objects? |
The law of likelihood. No experience of such objects working. - The whole is more than the sum. |
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What did Gibson and Walk (1960) find? |
Depth perception is developed at an early age. |
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What are the 10 monocular cues for perceiving depth? |
1.) Interposition 2.) Relative size 3.) Linear perspective 4.) Texture gradient 5.) Height in visual field 6.) Shading 7.) Atmospheric perception 8.) Ocularmotor accomodation 9.) Motion parallax 10.) Kinetic-depth perception |
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What is Akinetopsia? |
Motion agnosia. Lesion in the brain causes an inability to perceive motion. |
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Explain real movement |
- Object moves, image moves on retina. - Observer moves, image moves on retina. - Image is tracked, head moves, image is stationary on retina. |
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Explain apparent movement |
Nothing actually moves. An ultimate flashing of still images causes an autokinetic effect. Motion after effect - after watching movement, then directing attention, motion is perceived. |
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What is meant by intrinsic factors of object recognition? |
Define the character of an object - its shape, surfaces and parts. |
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What is meant by extrinsic factors of object recognition? |
They relate to variation in viewing conditions, such as position, lighting and occlusion. |
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What is Biedrmans's Recognition-by-components model? |
A view-independent theory of recognition. Objects are broken down into sub-objects which are categorised as 1 of 36 geons. The relationship between geons = object recognition. |
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What characterises geons? |
They are: 1.) View-invarient 2.) Based on non-accidental properties 3.) Robust to noise (can be identified even with missing parts). |
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Evaluate Biederman's Recognition-by-components model |
:) considers most orientations of objects. :( structural representation of some objects can be difficult. :( there are several candidates with the same geon structure :( object recognition cannot be completely view independent e.g. writing. |
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What are view-dependent theories of object recognition? |
Mental images of seen objects is stored and future objects are recognised by comparing them against prototypical views. - extrinsic properties are considered. |
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What did Gauthier et al (1988) find? |
Novel objects (greebles) made of geon-like shapes were identified better when seen from the same view as training. |
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When is a geon account most possible? |
At entry level of an object, not subordinate or superordinate. |
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What are view-dependent theories most valid? |
Subordinate and superordinate levels of objects. |
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What did Kluver and Bucy (1938, 1939) find? |
Monkeys with lesioned temporal lobes (magnocellular pathway) behaved as though they didn't know what they were seeing. |
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What did Gross et al (1970s) find? |
Cells in the inferotemporal cortex were activated by specific objects such as faces. - they fire more when presented with purer faces. |
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What is and what causes visual agnosia? |
Inability to identify objects by sight. Caused by: 1.) Lesions in the occipo-temporal lobe 2.) Lesions in the inferotemporal cortex |
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What does Lissauer categorise as apperceptive agnosia? |
- Deficits in perceptual processing. - impaired recognition, matching, copying, discrimination. |
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What does Lissauer categorise as Associative Agnosia? |
Impaired recognition but perceptual abilities (matching, copying, discriminating) are intact. |
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What is the inversion effect? |
Faces are much more affected by inversion than objects. Inverted faces are perceived as thinner. |
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What is the configural effect? |
Faces are recognised holistically. - Gestalt psychology. - Relationship between parts is more important than individual objects. |
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What is prosopagnosia? |
- Inability to recognise faces. - Ability to recognise objects is intact. |
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What is the Fusiform Face Area? |
An area in the brain ventrally surface to the temporal lobe. - significantly more activated when looking at faces compared to when looking at other stimuli. |
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