Pd Bio 305 First Test

Front 1

Body organization levels from simplest to most complex:

Back 1

Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
System
Organism

Front 2

Chemical level of body organization

Back 2

Chemical elements are composed of atoms which may be bound together to form molecules.

Front 3

Most abundant elements within body:

Back 3

Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen

Front 4

Cellular level of body organization

Back 4

Cells are the basic structural and functional components of life. The human body contains between 75 and 100 trillion cells.

Front 5

Cells

Back 5

Composed of cytoplasm
Must use nutrients to produce energy to survive
200 - 250 different types
There's a relationship between shape and function.

Front 6

Tissue

Back 6

Aggregations of similar cells that perform specific functions in the body.

Front 7

Four basic types of tissues

Back 7

Epithelial - surface covering
Connective - supportive
Muscular - contracting
Nervous - conduction

Front 8

Organ

Back 8

An aggregation of several tissue types integrated to perform a particular function.

Vary greatly in size and function
Ex = heart, kidneys, stomach, ovary, and each bone

Front 9

Body System

Back 9

consists of various organs that work together to perform specific functions

Ex = circulatory, respiratory, nervous, digestive, urinary, reproductive, muscular, skeletal, immune, and endocrine systems

Front 10

Organism

Back 10

the living individual composed of all the parts of the body functioning together.

Survival is dependent upon the normal functioning of each of its parts. All of the body systems work to provide homeostasis

Front 11

Homeostasis

Back 11

a relative constancy of the internal environment

Front 12

Negative Feedback

Back 12

When a factor becomes excessive of insufficient, so the system which monitors that factor initiates a counter-change that returns the factor toward the normal value

Front 13

Normal range for arterial blood pH:

Back 13

7.35 - 7.43

Front 14

Normal range for glucose in blood

Back 14

80-120 mg/100 mL

Front 15

What are feedback systems composed of?

Back 15

a monitoring receptor or organ that responds to the condition of the system
Ex = thermometer

A control center that receives and evaluates the information from the monitoring receptor
Ex = thermostat

A reactor which increases or decreases productivity and thereby regulates the system.
Ex = furnace

Front 16

Negative feedback

Back 16

Changes occurring away from a desired value that are reversed so that activity is toward restoring homeostasis.

Reverses the direction of physiological change

Front 17

Positive feedback

Back 17

Changes occurring away from a specific value that are continually accelerated.

Continues the direction of physiological change

Front 18

Atrophy

Back 18

A gradual decrease in the size of a tissue or organ as a result of a diminished size of its cells

Can result from disuse, decreased nutrition, denervation, lack of hormonal stimulation, or ischemia

Front 19

Ischemia

Back 19

insufficient blood

Front 20

Hypertrophy

Back 20

The growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells

Results from increased activity or functional demand, and is most often seen in skeletal and cardiac muscles.

Increased activity of muscle cells stimulates an increase in the size and number of cellular organelles and an increase in protein synthesis

Front 21

Hyperplasia

Back 21

Stimulated mitotic divisions in cells by increased functional demands, resulting in an increase in tissue or organ size
Ex = formation of a callus on the epidermis of the palm from excessive friction

Front 22

Dysplasia

Back 22

Abnormal maturation of cells within a tissue resulting in variations in size, shape, and appearance of cells.
Can occur in cells exposed to chronic irritation or inflammation
Can progress to neoplastic disease (tumor)

Front 23

Metaplasia

Back 23

The transformation of one cll type to another

Epithelial cells can only change to other types of epithelial cells (same with CT)

Ex = transformation of fibroblasts into collagen fibers, which aid in wound healing

Front 24

Structure of plasma membrane

Back 24

composed of phospholipid, protein and carbohydrate molecules. Lipids provide the major barrier for movement across the membrane

Front 25

Function of plasma membrane

Back 25

Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. Transports molecules in both directions.

Front 26

Structure of cytoplasm

Back 26

Fluid, jellylike substance in which organelles are suspended and in which chemical reactions take place

Front 27

Function of cytoplasm

Back 27

Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur. Contains the intracellular waste

Front 28

Structure of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 28

System of interconnected membrane-forming canals and tubules. There are two types: rough ER and smooth ER

Front 29

Function of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 29

Supporting framework within cytoplasm; transports materials and provides attachment for ribosomes

Front 30

Structure of ribosomes

Back 30

Granular particles composed of protein and rRNA. There are two subunits which allow for the alignment of mRNA

Front 31

Function of ribosomes

Back 31

Sythesizes proteins to mainly be used within the cell. All cellular structures contain protein

Front 32

Structure of golgi apparatus

Back 32

Cluster of flattened, membranous sacs which are involved in packaging molecules for secretion from the cell and in the synthesis of carbohydrates and steriods

Front 33

Function of golgi apparatus

Back 33

Modification of proteins by adding carbohydrates; and packages molecules for secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins

Front 34

Structure of Mitochondria

Back 34

Membranous sacs with folded inner partitions which are involved in the production of energy

Front 35

Function of golgi apparatus

Back 35

Modification of proteins by adding carbohydrates; and packages molecules for secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins

Front 36

Structure of Mitochondria

Back 36

Membranous sacs with folded inner partitions which are involved in the production of energy

Front 37

Metaplasia

Back 37

The transformation of one cll type to another

Epithelial cells can only change to other types of epithelial cells (same with CT)

Ex = transformation of fibroblasts into collagen fibers, which aid in wound healing

Front 38

Structure of plasma membrane

Back 38

composed of phospholipid, protein and carbohydrate molecules. Lipids provide the major barrier for movement across the membrane

Front 39

Function of plasma membrane

Back 39

Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. Transports molecules in both directions.

Front 40

Structure of cytoplasm

Back 40

Fluid, jellylike substance in which organelles are suspended and in which chemical reactions take place

Front 41

Function of cytoplasm

Back 41

Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur. Contains the intracellular waste

Front 42

Structure of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 42

System of interconnected membrane-forming canals and tubules. There are two types: rough ER and smooth ER

Front 43

Function of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 43

Supporting framework within cytoplasm; transports materials and provides attachment for ribosomes

Front 44

Structure of ribosomes

Back 44

Granular particles composed of protein and rRNA. There are two subunits which allow for the alignment of mRNA

Front 45

Function of ribosomes

Back 45

Sythesizes proteins to mainly be used within the cell. All cellular structures contain protein

Front 46

Structure of golgi apparatus

Back 46

Cluster of flattened, membranous sacs which are involved in packaging molecules for secretion from the cell and in the synthesis of carbohydrates and steriods

Front 47

Normal range for total lipids in blood

Back 47

350-850 mg/ 100 mL

Front 48

Normal range for urea in blood

Back 48

15-35 mg/ 100 mL

Front 49

What are feedback systems composed of?

Back 49

a monitoring receptor or organ that responds to the condition of the system
Ex = thermometer

A control center that receives and evaluates the information from the monitoring receptor
Ex = thermostat

A reactor which increases or decreases productivity and thereby regulates the system.
Ex = furnace

Front 50

Negative feedback

Back 50

Changes occurring away from a desired value that are reversed so that activity is toward restoring homeostasis.

Reverses the direction of physiological change

Front 51

Positive feedback

Back 51

Changes occurring away from a specific value that are continually accelerated.

Continues the direction of physiological change

Front 52

Atrophy

Back 52

A gradual decrease in the size of a tissue or organ as a result of a diminished size of its cells

Can result from disuse, decreased nutrition, denervation, lack of hormonal stimulation, or ischemia

Front 53

Ischemia

Back 53

insufficient blood

Front 54

Hypertrophy

Back 54

The growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells

Results from increased activity or functional demand, and is most often seen in skeletal and cardiac muscles.

Increased activity of muscle cells stimulates an increase in the size and number of cellular organelles and an increase in protein synthesis

Front 55

Hyperplasia

Back 55

Stimulated mitotic divisions in cells by increased functional demands, resulting in an increase in tissue or organ size
Ex = formation of a callus on the epidermis of the palm from excessive friction

Front 56

Dysplasia

Back 56

Abnormal maturation of cells within a tissue resulting in variations in size, shape, and appearance of cells.
Can occur in cells exposed to chronic irritation or inflammation
Can progress to neoplastic disease (tumor)

Front 57

Metaplasia

Back 57

The transformation of one cll type to another

Epithelial cells can only change to other types of epithelial cells (same with CT)

Ex = transformation of fibroblasts into collagen fibers, which aid in wound healing

Front 58

Structure of plasma membrane

Back 58

composed of phospholipid, protein and carbohydrate molecules. Lipids provide the major barrier for movement across the membrane

Front 59

Function of plasma membrane

Back 59

Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. Transports molecules in both directions.

Front 60

Structure of cytoplasm

Back 60

Fluid, jellylike substance in which organelles are suspended and in which chemical reactions take place

Front 61

Function of cytoplasm

Back 61

Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur. Contains the intracellular waste

Front 62

Structure of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 62

System of interconnected membrane-forming canals and tubules. There are two types: rough ER and smooth ER

Front 63

Function of endoplasmic reticulum

Back 63

Supporting framework within cytoplasm; transports materials and provides attachment for ribosomes

Front 64

Structure of ribosomes

Back 64

Granular particles composed of protein and rRNA. There are two subunits which allow for the alignment of mRNA

Front 65

Function of ribosomes

Back 65

Sythesizes proteins to mainly be used within the cell. All cellular structures contain protein

Front 66

Structure of golgi apparatus

Back 66

Cluster of flattened, membranous sacs which are involved in packaging molecules for secretion from the cell and in the synthesis of carbohydrates and steriods

Front 67

Function of mitochondria

Back 67

Release energy from food molecules and transform energy into ATP

Front 68

Structure of lysosomes

Back 68

Membranous sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes which are involved in the digestion of foreign molecules and worn or damaged cells

Front 69

Function of lysosomes

Back 69

Digest foreign molecules and worn and or damaged cells

Front 70

Structure of fibrils and microtubules

Back 70

Thin, hollow tubes

Front 71

Function of fibrils and microtubules

Back 71

Support cytoplasm and transport materials within the cytoplasm

Front 72

Structure of nucleus

Back 72

A spheroid body within a cell which is the largest organelle of the cell. It contains chromatin and a nucleolus

Front 73

Function of nucleus

Back 73

Contains the chromatin (48 chromosomes, nucleolus, and the nucleoplasm). It is the control center for all cellular functions

Front 74

Structure of the nuclear membrane

Back 74

Membrane surrounding nucleus, composed of protein and lipid molecules.

Front 75

Perinuclear cistern

Back 75

The narrow space between the two walls of the nuclear membrane

Front 76

Function of the nuclear membrane

Back 76

Support nucleus and control passage of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm

Front 77

Structure of chromatin

Back 77

Fibrous strands composed of protein and DNA molecules. In a differentiated cell the DNA making up the chromosomes cannot be seen as individual chromosomes because the DNA is unpacked and the genes are forming the three types of RNA.

Front 78

Function of chromatin

Back 78

Controls cellular activity for carrying on life processes. It is this material that contains the 48 chromosomes and thus the genetic material that is made up of all the cell's genes.

Front 79

Structure of nucleolus

Back 79

Dense, non-membranous mass composed of protein and rRNA molecules

Front 80

What is a cell membrane composed of?

Back 80

Phospholipids - 43%
proteins - 55%
carbohydrates - 2%

Front 81

Thickness of cell membrane

Back 81

6.5-10 nanometers

Front 82

Hydrophilic

Back 82

Mixing with water
Ex = polar phosphate heads of phospholipid molecules

Front 83

Hydrophobic

Back 83

Not mixing with water
Ex = nonpolar fatty acid tails of phospholipid molecules

Front 84

Integral proteins

Back 84

embedded in the phospholipid bilayer
involved in active transport and forming membrane

Front 85

Phospholipid bilayer

Back 85

Forms a major barrier to a vast number of water soluble substances.

Front 86

Permeability of a cell membrane to molecules is a function of:

Back 86

1) Size of molecules
2) Solubility in lipids
3) Ionic charge of molecules
4) The presence of carrier molecules

Front 87

Five functions of proteins in the cell membrane:

Back 87

1) Structural support
2) Transport of molecules across the membrane
3) Enzymatic control of chemical reactions
4) Receptors for hormones and other regulatory molecules that arrive at the outer surface
5) Cellular markers (antigens), which identify the blood and tissue type

Front 88

Five functions of the carbohydrate containing molecules:

Back 88

1) Repel negative objects due to their negative charge
2) Act as receptors for hormones and other regulatory molecules
3) Form specific cell markers which enable like cells to attach and aggregate
4) Enter into immune reactions
5) Regulate tissue growth, which is normally held within certain limits of cell density.

Front 89

How many TYPES of cells are found in the body?

Back 89

Over 200, which form 4 general types of tissues.

Front 90

Exocrine glands

Back 90

Secretes into a duct (external environment)
Example = sweat

Front 91

Endocrine glands

Back 91

Ductless; secrete hormones into blood

Endocrinology = study of hormones

Front 92

Seven methods of transport across the cell membrane:

Back 92

Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration
Active transport
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis

Front 93

Diffusion

Back 93

Passive movement of molecules from regions of higher concentration toward regions of lower concentration
Only energy source needed is the molecular motion of the molecules
Ex - exchange of respiratory gases in lungs

Front 94

Facilitated diffusion

Back 94

Carrier substances are used to speed up processes
Energy source = carrier energy and molecular motion
Ex = glucose entering cell with the help of insulin

Front 95

Osmosis

Back 95

Passive movement of solvent molecules through semi-permeable membrane due to concentration difference
Energy source is molecular motion - no ATP is required
Ex = water movement through the cell wall to maintain constant turgidity of cell

Front 96

Filtration

Back 96

Molecules are forced by hydrostatic pressure from regions of higher pressures to regions of lower pressures
Blood pressure is the energy source
Ex = removal of wastes within kidneys

Front 97

Active transport

Back 97

Molecules are transported through cell membrane by integral membrane proteins from regions of low to high concentration.
Uses cellular energy (ATP)
Ex = movement of glucose and amino acids through membranes

Front 98

Pinocytosis

Back 98

Membrane engulfs minute droplets of fluid from surroundings.
Uses cellular energy (ATP)
Ex = Membrane forms vacuoles containing solute and solvent

Front 99

Phagocytosis

Back 99

Membrane engulfs solid particles from surroundings
Energy source is cellular energy (ATP)
Ex = White blood cell membrane engulfs bacterial cell

Front 100

Aquaporins (pores)

Back 100

Form channels specific for the movement of water molecules across cellular membranes.
They greatly increase the plasma membranes' permeability to water

Front 101

Osmolarity and normal levels

Back 101

the osmotic pressure in the body. Normal levels for body fluids is 300 mOsm.

Front 102

Are pancreatic cells exocrine or endocrine?

Back 102

Both

Front 103

Peripheral proteins

Back 103

loosely bound to the surface - serve as enzymes and receptors

Front 104

Integral proteins

Back 104

Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer - transverse the membrane and are involved in active transport.

Front 105

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

Back 105

fluid inside the cell

Front 106

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

Back 106

Fluid outside the cell

Front 107

What can cross the plasma membrane without energy?

Back 107

Water, small ions (through channels), lipid solubles (like cholesterol and sex hormone steroids)

Front 108

Tonicity

Back 108

the effect the concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the intracellular verses the extracellular fluids

Front 109

Isotonic solution

Back 109

extracellular fluid has the same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes as the intracellular fluid

Front 110

Hypotonic solution

Back 110

Concentration of extracellular fluid is LOWER than intracellular fluid. Water enters the cell, causing it to swell and burst.

Front 111

Hypertonic solution

Back 111

Concentration of extracellular fluid is HIGHER than intracellular fluid, so water moves out of cell, causing it to shrink and burst.

Front 112

Endocytosis

Back 112

Regions of plasma membrane fold into cell, forming packets which pinch off to produce intracellular, membrane-bound vesicles with insoluble material.
Two types: pinocytosis and phagocytosis

Front 113

Exocytosis

Back 113

Reverse endocytosis; membrane-bound vesicles in the cytoplasm fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents to the outside of the cell

Front 114

Sorting signal

Back 114

A unique sequence of amino acids that identifies a protein.

Front 115

Coat proteins

Back 115

from the cytosol bind with another specific protein facing the outer surface of the membrane

Front 116

Docking markers

Back 116

Layer under coat proteins. Known as v-SNARE's. They can link lock-and-key fashion with t-SNARE's (another protein marker found on the targeted membrane)

Front 117

What is contained in the nucleus?

Back 117

Chromatin, nucleolus, nucleoplasm, and chromosomes.

The nucleus is the largest organelle of the cell.

Front 118

Perinuclear cisterna

Back 118

the narrow space between the two walls of the nuclear membrane

Front 119

Nucleoplasm (karyolymph)

Back 119

Gel-like medium of the nucleus

Front 120

Nucleolus

Back 120

A dense, non-membranous body composed of protein and rRNA molecules.

It synthesizes and stores rRNA

Front 121

Chromatin

Back 121

Consists of DNA and proteins called histones

Front 122

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Back 122

an organelle consisting of a system of interconnected membrane-forming tubules. Transports substances through the cell and provides attachment for ribosomes.

Contains enzymes necessary for catabolic and anabolic activity.

Front 123

Cisternae

Back 123

minute tubules forming a convoluted network of membranes.

Front 124

Rough ER

Back 124

Ribosomes attached, which synthesize proteins - mainly integral membrane proteins and proteins to be secreted outside the cell.

Front 125

Smooth ER

Back 125

No ribosomes, so no protein synthesis
Involved in lipid synthesis, steroid hormone synthesis, and detoxification of alcohol, drugs, and chemicals (mainly in the liver

Increased amounts of smooth ER leads to the cell's tolerance of an increased volume of drugs.

Front 126

Ribosome

Back 126

site of protein synthesis. Each consists of a larger and smaller subunit which fit together.

Front 127

rRNA's

Back 127

the RNA of ribosomes.

rRNA = ribosomal RNA

Front 128

How many lysosomes do cells in the body contain?

Back 128

Between 250 and 350

Front 129

Proteases

Back 129

Powerful hydrolytic digestive enzymes

Front 130

How many proteases have been isolated from lysosomes?

Back 130

Between 30 and 50

Front 131

How many different cell types are there in the human body?

Back 131

200

Front 132

Molecules that are relatively large can cross the plasma membrane only if...

Back 132

They are lipid soluble

Front 133

What does the nucleolus do?

Back 133

Synthesizes and stores rRNA

Front 134

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum involved in?

Back 134

Lipid and steroid production

Front 135

The Golgi...

Back 135

Modifies proteins
Stores, sorts, and packages products
Produces lysosomes

Front 136

What are the folds of the inner membranes of mitochondria called?

Back 136

The cristae

Front 137

Excessive consumption of which vitamin causes lysosomal membranes to rupture?

Back 137

Vitamin A

Front 138

Where are V-Snares found?

Back 138

On the vesicle membrane

Front 139

A callus on the epidermis of the hand is an example of what?

Back 139

Hyperplasia

Front 140

What type of RNA does the nucleolus synthesize?

Back 140

rRNA

Front 141

Proteins that are being made to be transported out of the cell will most likely be found on what?

Back 141

Rough ER

Front 142

An excessive intake of drugs and alcohol will cause an increase in which organelle?

Back 142

Smooth ER

Front 143

A ribosome is made of what type of RNA?

Back 143

rRNA

Front 144

Mitochondria are found in all body cells except ___________

Back 144

Red blood cells

Front 145

Rheumatoid arthritis

Back 145

The release of enzymes by Lysosomes into the joint capsule.

Front 146

How many hydrolytic proteases have been isolated from lysosomes?

Back 146

40

Front 147

How many of the 109 elements are normally found in the human tissues?

Back 147

26 elements

Front 148

The thyroid gland contains remarkably large amounts of which element?

Back 148

Iodine - up to 3,000 time the amount of plasma. Hypothyroidism = lack of iodine

Front 149

Covalent Bond

Back 149

Atoms sharing (rather than transferring) one, two, or three electron pairs.

Front 150

Ionic bond

Back 150

The electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions
Total transfer of electrons
Increases atoms individual stability

Front 151

Anions

Back 151

Atoms that gain electrons (and an overall negative charge)

Front 152

Cations

Back 152

Atoms that lose electrons (and an overall positive charge)

Front 153

Hydrogen bonds

Back 153

Result from the electrostatic interaction between a small, highly electronegative atom of a molecule and a neighboring hydrogen atom.

Front 154

Organic compounds

Back 154

All compounds containing carbon except:
CO2 - carbon dioxide
CO - carbon monoxide
NaCN - sodium cyanide
NaHCO3 - sodium bicarbonate

Front 155

Inorganic compounds

Back 155

compounds that do not contain carbon. Ex = water, CO2, and O2

Front 156

5 characteristics of carbon:

Back 156

4 electrons in outer shell
Can make four covalent bonds
Present in a large number of compounds
Only H is found more often
Can bond to many different elements, but most commonly to H, O, N, and C.

Front 157

Four major classes of organic compounds

Back 157

1. Nucleic Acids
2. Proteins
3. Carbohydrates
4. Lipids

Front 158

Functions of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Back 158

Storage, transmission, and expression of genetic code

Front 159

Functions of proteins (fibers, enzymes, hormones, macromolecules, and nitrogeneous compounds):

Back 159

Cellular structure and promote and regulate body activities

Front 160

Functions of carbohydrates (starches and sugars)

Back 160

Cellular fuel, storage of energy, and component of other substances, such as nucleic acids and mucopolysaccharides

Front 161

Functions of lipids (neutral fats, phospholipids, and steroids)

Back 161

Storage of energy, insulation, structural support, component of cell membranes, and promote body activities.

Front 162

Nucleic Acid

Back 162

A molecule composed of nucleotides containing a nitrogen-containing base, a 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group

Front 163

Phosphodiester linkages

Back 163

Linkages that attach a chain of nucleotides through dehydration synthesis

Front 164

Pyrimidines

Back 164

Single ring nucleic acid compounds such as cytosine, thymine, and uracil

Front 165

Purines

Back 165

Double ring nucleic acid structures such as adenine and guanine.

Front 166

DNA Base Parings

Back 166

C-G (3 hydrogen bonds)
A-T (2 hydrogen bonds)

Front 167

RNA Base Parings

Back 167

C-G (3 hydrogen bonds)
A-U (2 hydrogen bonds)

Front 168

What serves as the blueprints of a cell?

Back 168

Nucleic Acids
DNA
RNA that is transcribed from DNA

Front 169

Differences between DNA and RNA

Back 169

1) RNA has U instead of T
2) In DNA, second carbon lacks oxygen molecule, so "deoxy"
3) Three types of RNA, only one type of DNA
4) DNA = double strand, RNA = single strand
5) DNA function = genetic material, RNA function = Protein synthesis

Front 170

mRNA (messenger RNA)

Back 170

Template for protein synthesis
mRNA processing: capping of a 5-methyl guanosine cap (helps ribosome bind to mRNA) and adding a long Poly-A (polyadenelated) tail. (protects strand of mRNA from digestive enzymes while in cytoplasm)

Front 171

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

Back 171

Carries amino acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosomes and acts as a translation molecule. Has anticodon that matches with codon of mRNA

Front 172

rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)

Back 172

forms part of the structure of the ribosomes
Ribosome = 60% rRNA and 40% protein

Front 173

Protein Synthesis:

Back 173

Two major steps:
Transcription - process by which genetic information from DNA is transferred into RNA in the nucleus
Translation - mRNA is made into a functional protein by ribosome and tRNA

Front 174

Helicase

Back 174

Enzyme that unzips the DNA for transcription

Front 175

Single Stranded Binding Proteins and Topoisomerase

Back 175

Enzymes that help keep the DNA uncoiled.

Front 176

Structure of proteins:

Back 176

Long chains of amino acids
Character is determined by order of amino acids
Can vary from 50 to 500,000 or more amino acids

Front 177

Differences between proteins

Back 177

1. Number of amino acids
2. Sequence of amino acids
3. Type of amino acids

Front 178

9 Common functions of proteins

Back 178

1. Form all enzymes
2. Form most hormones
3. Comprise all of the antibodies
4. Serve as receptor sites for regulatory molecules
5. Act as carrier molecules in active transport
6. Regulate concentration of osmotic solutions
7. Provide tensile strength
8. Serve as important buffer systems
9. Be metabolized to supply cellular energy

Front 179

What is protein composed of?

Back 179

A long polypeptide chain

Front 180

What are amino acids composed of?

Back 180

polypeptides and proteins

Front 181

Chromosome

Back 181

Structure composed of DNA and associated proteins that carries the hereditary info of the cell or organism

Front 182

Chromatid

Back 182

One copy of a chromosome formed by DNA replication that is joined by the centromere to another chromatid. (one side or arm of chromosome)

Front 183

Centromere

Back 183

An area on the chromosome of super-coiled DNA that holds chromatids together. Also the site where the kinetochore forms.

Front 184

Gene

Back 184

A region of the DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA. Genes are responsible for the expression of traits and synthesis of protein molecules

Front 185

Allele

Back 185

Alternative forms of the same gene. IN a diploid ell, each gene will have two alleles, each copying the same locus (position) on homologous chromosomes

Front 186

Diploid

Back 186

A cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes. Most cellse are normally diploid. These cells are referred to as "autosomes."

Front 187

Haploid

Back 187

A cell that contains half the number of chromosomes. THese are the gametes (sperm and ova). These cells are referred to as "sex chromosomes."

Front 188

What role do chromosomes play in the process of DNA replication?

Back 188

They are responsible for passing genetic material from one cell to another.