Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
389 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Carbohydrates
|
CnH2nOn
disaccharide, polysaccharide U:dehydration D:hydrolysis monosaccharide |
|
|
Lipids
|
3 fatty acids molecules and a glycerol backbone
chief means of food storage in animals release more E than anything else provide insulation and protection |
|
|
Phospholipids
|
glycerol, two fatty acids,
phosphate group, nitrogen containing alcohol and cephalin |
|
|
Waxes
|
Ester of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols
Ex: skin, fur, leaves of higher plants |
|
|
Steroids
|
3 fused cyclohexane rings 1 fused cyclopentane ring
Ex: Cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen, corticosteroid |
|
|
Carotenoids
|
produce colors in plants or animals
Ex: Carotenes, xanthophylls |
|
|
Porphyrins
|
four joined pyrrole rings
Ex: Heme+Fe = hemoglobin |
|
|
Proteins(composition)
|
made of CHONPS
1 structure: a.a. sequence 2 structure: a helices b-pleated sheets |
|
|
Structural proteins
|
Physical support of a cell or tissue
Extra( cartilage, tendon, bone) or Intracellular(proteins) Ex: fibrous scleroproteins > collagen |
|
|
Enzymes (rate?, examples)
|
Increase rate of chemical rxns
ex; amylase, lipase ATPase albumins and globulins |
|
|
Transport proteins
|
Carriers of important materials
Ex: hemoglobin/cytochromes carry oxygen/electrons albumins and globulins |
|
|
Antibodies
|
Immunoglobulins(Igs)
Bind to foreign particles(antigens) including disease-causing organisms 1) attract other cells(leukocytes) to phagocytize antigen 2) cause antigens to agglutinate(form clump) and removed by phagocytic cells |
|
|
Simple proteins
|
composed of amino acids
|
|
|
Hormones
|
proteins that function as chemical messenger
Ex: insulin, acth |
|
|
Conjugated proteins
|
protein fraction + non protein fraction
|
|
|
Lipoproteins
|
protein bound to lipid
|
|
|
Glycoproteins
|
protein bound to carbohydrates
|
|
|
Chromoproteins
|
proteins bound to pigmented molecules
|
|
|
Metalloproteins
|
proteins complexed with a metal ion
|
|
|
Nucleoproteins
|
proteins associated with nucleic acids
|
|
|
Enzymes II
|
specific to substrate; active site
Induced fit> lock and key theory conformation of active site changes lower activation E; unchanged, not consumed, no deltaG change |
|
|
Enzymes optimal conditions
|
optimal temperature, pH
high temperature denatures high concentration high rate then reach Vmax rxn becomes constant Reversible rxns |
|
|
Enzyme activity
|
hydrolysis (break down) dehydration (synthesize)
|
|
|
Cofactors
|
nonprotein molecules
Ex: metal cations, organic groups strong/covalent bonds with proteins = prosthetic groups |
|
|
Coenzyme
|
specific type of cofactor.
not synthesized by body usually found in diet |
|
|
Nucleic acids
|
contain CHONP
polymers of nucleotides DNA and RNA |
|
|
Cell theory
|
All livings things composed of cells
basic unit of life arise from previous cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA |
|
|
Magnification
|
increase in apparent size of object
|
|
|
Resolution
|
differentiation between two closely situated objects
|
|
|
DNA
|
2' C : C-H; 3' C: dna pol binds; 5' C: phosphate group; thymine
can self replicate, basis of heredity, mutable deoxyribose (sugar),nitrogenous base,phosphate group |
|
|
Compound Light microscope
|
Total magnification:
magnification eyepiece * magnification objective |
|
|
Diaphragm
|
controls the amount of light passing
|
|
|
Adjustment
|
focuses the image
coarse:roughly / fine:sharply |
|
|
Phase contrast microscopy
|
study live cells
differences in refractive index |
|
|
Electron microscopy
|
beam of e-
1000x than light microscope tissues fixed, sectioned and stained(heavy metals) |
|
|
Centrifugation
|
based on density
denser particles will sink at the bottom |
|
|
Fluid mosaic model
|
phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
protein channels(small particles) carrier proteins(larger proteins) |
|
|
Nucleus
|
Contains chromosomes ( DNA+histones)
nucleolus: ribosomal RNA(rRNA) |
|
|
Ribosomes
|
Protein production
free and some bound to ER two subunits(one large, one small) four binding sites(mRNA, A,P and E sites) |
|
|
Endoplasmic reticulum
|
transport of molecules
throughout/out cell |
|
|
Golgi apparatus
|
modifies, repackages and distributes vesicles
|
|
|
Mitochondria
|
Aerobic respiration
Energy production |
|
|
Cytoplasm
|
cyclosis (streaming mvt within cell)
|
|
|
Vacuole
|
transport and storage of materials
more likely found in plants than in animals |
|
|
Centrioles
|
involved in spindle formation
in animals but not in plants direct separation of chromosomes during cell division |
|
|
Cytoskeleton
|
supports, maintains and functions in cell motility.
microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments |
|
|
Microtubules
|
hollow rods made of tubulin
provide framework for organelle mvt primary constituent of centrioles, cilia and flagella |
|
|
Cilia/Flagella
|
cell motility and cytoplasmic movement
special arrangement of microtubules |
|
|
Microfilaments
|
rods of actin, cell movement and support
cause indentation of cell membrane at metaphase plate(+ myosin) |
|
|
Plant vs. Animal cells
|
no centrosome
presence of cell wall(cellulose) chloroplasts Many vacuoles vs. one central vacuole (plant) |
|
|
Osmosis
|
hypertonicty(cell shrivel) vs hypotonicity(cell burst)
|
|
|
Facilitative/ Simple diffusion
|
down concentration gradient
no energy required facil.(carrier) diff.(no carrier) |
|
|
Intracellular circulation
|
brownian mvt(mvt due to kinetic E)
cyclosis(circular motion cytoplasm) ER(passageway from nuclear membrane to cell surface) |
|
|
Diffusion
|
cells are in direct contact with external environment
|
|
|
Circulatory system
|
cells far apart
use vessels to transport fluids |
|
|
Karyokinesis
|
nuclear division
|
|
|
Cytokinesis
|
cell division
cleavage furrow |
|
|
Interphase
|
Genome replicates
|
|
|
Prophase
|
chromosomes condense
spindles form |
|
|
Metaphase
|
chromosome align
|
|
|
Anaphase
|
sister chromatids separate
|
|
|
Telophase
|
new nuclear membranes form
spindle disappears chromosomes uncoil |
|
|
Plant cells(vs. animal cells)
|
lack centrioles
division occurs through the formation of a cell plate |
|
|
Meiosis
|
sex cells
haploid # (1N) |
|
|
Mitosis
|
somatic cells
diploid # preserved (2N) |
|
|
Synapsis
|
homologous chromosomes intertwine
tetrad crossing-over occurs |
|
|
Anaphase I(meiosis)
|
disjunction(homologous pairs separate and pulled to opposite poles)
provides genetic variation |
|
|
Asexual reproductive mechanisms
|
fission, budding, parthogenesis, regeneration, asexual reproduction in plants
|
|
|
Fission
|
equal DNA content/size/cytoplasm
ex: bacteria, amoeba, paramecia, algae |
|
|
Budding
|
unequal size/DNA
ex: hydra, yeast |
|
|
Regeneration
|
regrowth of limbs or injured body part
as long as the central disk is present hydra, starfish |
|
|
Parthenogenesis
|
dvpt of unfertilized eggs
ex: male bees vs. worker/queen bees |
|
|
Asexual reproduction (spore)
|
Alternation of generation
sporophyte(diploid) and gametophyte(haploid) |
|
|
Vegetative propagation
|
undifferentiated tissues(meristems) can develop into new plants
artificial vs. natural |
|
|
Natural vegetative propagation
|
Bulbs(form + bulbs; tulips, daffodils)
Tubers(underground stems> mature plants) Runners(stems above/along ground> new roots and upright stems) Rhizomes(undergound stems>new upright stems) |
|
|
Artificial vegetative propagation
|
cut(new roots in water or moist ground
auxins accelerate root formation) layering(take root when bent and covered with soil) Connect cambiums of two closely related plants (scion and stock) |
|
|
Sexual vs Asexual
|
two parents involved, genetic uniqueness
|
|
|
Sexual reproduction requirements
|
functional gametes
fertilization(conjugation) development of zygote |
|
|
Gametes
|
produced in gonads
male(testes) vs. female(ovaries) both(hermaphrodites) |
|
|
Spermatogenesis
|
occurs in the seminiferous tubules
spermatogonia>meiosis>4 haploid sperms head(nucleus),tail(flagella), neck+body(mitochondria) |
|
|
Oogenesis
|
occurs in the ovaries
diploid cell>meiosis>single mature egg, polar bodies |
|
|
Mature ovum
|
most of cytoplasm, RNA, organelles and nutrients needed by a developing embryo.
|
|
|
Fertilization
|
union sperm nuclei and egg to form zygote
|
|
|
External fertilization
|
reproduce in water(vertebrates)
many eggs laid (no direct passage sperm to egg) |
|
|
Internal fertilization
|
terrestrial vertebrates(direct passage sperm to egg cell)
early dvpt outside mother's body> many eggs layed parental care= 1/ # eggs |
|
|
Pathway of sperm
|
STEVEN UP
seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferesens, ejaculatory duct, nothing, urethra, penis |
|
|
Testes
|
site of production of testosterone
|
|
|
Spermatogenesis
|
spermatogonia(2N)> 1 spermatocytes (2N)>2 spermatocytes (N)> spermatids(N)> spermatozoa(N)
|
|
|
Ovaries
|
1000s follicles
|
|
|
Follicles
|
produce estrogen
provide food, protection to immature ovum mature during follicular phase |
|
|
Immature ovum
|
released into abdominal cavity
drawn into nearby oviduct |
|
|
LH
|
its surge triggers ovulation
|
|
|
Estrogen
|
steroid hormones necessary for female maturation
responsible for thickening the endometrium(uterine wall) |
|
|
Progesterone
|
secreted by corpus luteum
stimulates dvpt and maintenance of endometrial walls |
|
|
Menstrual cycle(follicular phase)
|
anterior pituitary secretes FSH
> promotes the dvpt of the follicle |
|
|
Menstrual phase(ovulation)
|
mature ovarian follicle burst/ ovum released
peak in estrogen>LH surge>ovulation |
|
|
Menstrual phase(luteal phase)
|
LH induces rupture of follicle into corpus luteum
|
|
|
Corpus luteum
|
secretes estrogen and progesterone
|
|
|
Progesterone
|
causes glands of the endometrium to mature and produce secretions that prepare it for embryo implantation
|
|
|
Menstrual phase(menstruation)
|
if egg not fertilized corpus luteum atrophies
drop in estrogen and progesterone causes endometrium to slough off if egg fertilized placenta produces hCG which maintains corpus luteum estrogen and progesterone still produced, maintain uterus until placenta produces the two hormones |
|
|
Oogenesis
|
production of female gametes
primary oocytes>meiosis I>secondary oocyte+polar body>meiosis II triggered by spermatozoa>ovum+ second polar body |
|
|
Oocyte cell membrane
|
two layers
1st corona radiata 2nd zone pellucida |
|
|
Fertilization(path of sperm)
|
sperm(viable for 1-2 days)
vaginal canal>cervix>uterus>fallopian tube>penetrates corona radiata then zona pellucida(using acrosome) fuses with egg |
|
|
Acrosomal process
|
triggers a cortical reaction
results in formation of a fertilization membrane (prevents multiple fertilizations) release of Ca2+ increase metabolic rate |
|
|
Monozygotic twins
|
zygote splits into two embryos
if at two-cell step separate placentas and chorions if at blastula stage same placenta, one amnion if incomplete division, siamese twins Result of an indeterminate cleavage(cleavage where the cells can develop into a complete organism. |
|
|
Dizygotic twins
|
two ova released fertilized by two different sperm
|
|
|
Sexual reproduction plants
|
alternation of generation (diploid & gametophyte)
sporophytes(2N)>meiosis>spore(1N)>gametophyte(1N)>mitosis>gametes(N)>fertilization>sporophyte(2N) |
|
|
Mosses
|
gametophyte dominant generation
|
|
|
Ferns
|
sporophyte dominant generation
|
|
|
Flower(male and female)
|
male: stamen(fap: filament, anther, pollen grains)
female: pistil(soso: stigma, style, ovary, ovules) then petal, sepal, receptacle |
|
|
Anther
|
produce monoploid spores which develop into pollen grains
|
|
|
Epycotyl(seed formation)
|
precursor of upper stem and leaves
|
|
|
cotyledons
|
seed leaves. Dicot seeds have 2 while monocot seeds 1
|
|
|
Hypocotyl
|
develops into lower stem and root
|
|
|
Endosperm
|
grows and feed embryo
absorbed by cotyledon in dicots |
|
|
Seed coat
|
develops from outer covering of ovule
|
|
|
Seed
|
embryo+seed coat, formed in the ovary walls
usually inside fruit, dispersed by air, water, animals germinates under proper conditions of T, O2, moisture |
|
|
Meristem
|
undifferentiated tissue which undergo active cell reproduction
apical: growth in length(tips roots, stems) lateral:or cambium (lateral growth) between/can differentiate into xylem and phloem |
|
|
Stomach
|
contains HCL and enzyme pepsin
|
|
|
Liver
|
stores nutrients
detoxifies chemicals forms urea produces glycogen/bile |
|
|
Bile
|
detergent that emulsifies fat.
produced in liver, stored in gallbaldder |
|
|
Pancreas
|
secretes pancreatic juices
secretes sodium bicarbonate(neutralizes chyme) |
|
|
Large intestine
|
water reabsorption
caecum, rectum |
|
|
Genes
|
composed of DNA
located on chromosomes |
|
|
Allele
|
alternative form of a gene
|
|
|
Phenotype
|
physical manifestation of the genetic makeup
|
|
|
genotype
|
genetic makeup of an individual
|
|
|
Mendel's Law of Dominance
|
dominant vs recessive allele
|
|
|
Monohybrid cross
|
one trait
|
|
|
Punett square
|
used to determine ratio of different genetic combinations
|
|
|
Testcross
|
cross used to determine an unknown genotype with 100 accuracy
Ax crossed with aa. |
|
|
Dihybrid cross
|
two traits
crossing over Mendel's law of independent assortment |
|
|
Incomplete dominance
|
Red with white gives
Red(1) pink(2) white(1) |
|
|
Sex linked
|
Male can't directly pass it to male offspring
|
|
|
Drosophila melanogaster(advantages)
|
reproduces often/in large numbers
few chromosomes large, easily recognizable in shape and size mutations occur frequently |
|
|
Environmental factors(trait genetics)
|
factors such as temperature can affect species
ex: crooked vs straight wings low vs. high T |
|
|
Genetic problems(non-disjunction)
|
failure of 2 homologous pairs (meiosis I) to separate or sister chromatids (meiosis II)
ex: trisomy 21 Down's syndrome |
|
|
Genetic problems(chromosomal breakage)
|
spontaneous or induced by environmental factors
ex: mutagenic agents, X-rays |
|
|
Mutagenic agents
|
induce mutations
cosmic/X/ultraviolet rays, radioactivity, chemical compounds(mustard gas, colchicine) sometimes carcinogenic |
|
|
Mutation types
|
addition, deletion, substitution
|
|
|
Genetic disorders
|
phenylketonuria(PKU)
disease, inability to produce proper enzyme for phenylalanine metabolism sickle cell anemia defective hemoglobin, less oxygen carried |
|
|
Purines
|
Adenine and guanine(A G)
nitrogenous base two rings GUPTA |
|
|
Pyrimidines
|
cytosine thymine
nitrogenous base one ring |
|
|
DNA(3D shape)
|
double stranded helix
sugar & phosphate outside,base inside A-T: 2 H bonds; C-G 3 H bds (Greece) Watson-Crick DNA model |
|
|
DNA replication semiconservative?
|
new daughter double helix has one strand from parent helix and one newly synthesized one
|
|
|
Genetic code
|
composed of AUCG
20 amino acids, codons universal, degenerate(some codons code for same amino acid) |
|
|
RNA
|
nitrogenous base(uracil instead of thymine), phophate and ribose(2'C:OH)
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA |
|
|
mRNA
|
carries complementary of template strand from nucleus to ribosomes
monocistronic: one strand codes for one polypeptide |
|
|
tRNA
|
found in cytoplasm, brings a. a. to ribosomes
recognizes a. a. and mRNA codon explained by 3D structure 1 end contains 3-nucleotide sequence (anticodon) and the other is site of a.a. attachment one type of tRNA for each a.a (40 total) |
|
|
rRNA
|
structural component of ribosomes
most abundant synthesized in nucleus |
|
|
Aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase
|
Each a.a has its own enzyme
active site binds to a.a. and corresponding tRNA |
|
|
Polypeptide synthesis
|
ribosome scans mRNA binds to AUG
1)elongation hydrogen bonds mRNA in A site and anticodon 2) translocation uncharged tRNA removed 3) terminates with termination codons Many ribosomes can translate a single mRNA(polyribosome) |
|
|
Newly formed protein
|
assumes characteristic native conformation determined by a.a sequence
its polypeptides chain can form inter/extra molecular cross bridges with disulfide bonds |
|
|
Cytoplasmic DNA(bacteria)
|
in mitochondria, chloroplasts, plasmid influence nuclear genes
can provide resistance(ex: plasmids) |
|
|
Bacterial genome
|
nucleiod(circular chromosome) + plasmids
|
|
|
Episomes
|
pieces of DNA sometimes found in plasmids
can integrate bacterial genome |
|
|
Genetic variance(bacteria)
|
provided through transformation, conjugation and transduction
as opposed to binary fission where there is no diversity |
|
|
Transformation
|
plasmid incorporated into bacterial chromosome through recombination
inheritable genetic combinations |
|
|
Conjugation
|
Sexual mating, transfer of genetic material between two temporarily joined bacteria
donor(+) recipient (-) Bacteria must have sex factors(ex:F factor) Hfr cells can recombine with bacterial chromosomes |
|
|
Transduction
|
fragments of bacterial chromosome packaged into viral progeny
virions infect new bacteria and introduce new genetic material through recombination with host DNA |
|
|
Recombination
|
occurs by breakage and rearrangements of adjacent regions of DNA
organisms carrying different genes or alleles for same trait are crossed |
|
|
Operon
|
promoter, operator, structural genes
|
|
|
Operator
|
sequence of non-transcribable DNA
repressor binding site |
|
|
Regulator
|
codes for repressor that binds to operator prevents transcription
|
|
|
Inducible system
|
inducer binds to repressor
repressor can;t bind to operator transcription occurs inducer is substrate so if [substr.] absent synthesis is negligible |
|
|
Repressible system
|
need repressor+co-repressor(structural genes/end products) to bind to operator to stop transcription
If co-repressor is deficient constitutive operons |
|
|
Bacteriophage
|
virus that attack bacteria
protein coat, nucleic acid, tail sheath/fibers(use to bind) |
|
|
Bacteriophage(lytic cycle)
|
cause bacterials cell to burst
virions that emerge are called virulent In cell culture, plaque(clear space) where bacteria lawn was previously present. |
|
|
Bacteriohage (lysogenic cycle)
|
bacteriophage becomes integrated in bacterial genome in harmless form (provirus)
bacteria(+integrated virus) becomes resistant to further infection can reenter lytic cycle as a result of environmental circumstances |
|
|
Cleavage(process)
|
Morulation>Blastulation>Gastrulation>Neurulation
|
|
|
Morulation
|
ball of embryonic cells
|
|
|
Blastulation
|
morula develops a fluid-filled cavity
called blastocoel that develops into blastula |
|
|
Gastrulation
|
blastula develops into three-layered structure
Ectoderm(dating) face, skin, anal canal, nails, nervous system Endoderm: epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, pancreas, thyroid, bladder lining, parts of liver Mesoderm: circulatory system, musxoskeletal system,excretory system, gonads, connective tissue throughout the body, portions of digestive and respiratory organs |
|
|
Neurulation
|
develop into a rudimentary nervous system
neural folds >neural tube>brain and spinal cord(CNS) >neural crest>peripheral nervous system |
|
|
Chorion
|
gas exchange, moist
|
|
|
Allantois
|
respiration, excretion, blood vessels to transport O2, CO2, water, salt and nitrogenous waste.
|
|
|
Amnion
|
amniotic fluid provides aqueous environment
protects embryo from shock |
|
|
Yolk Sac
|
Food
|
|
|
Non-placental internal development
|
without placenta (ex: marsupials)
exchange of food and oxygen between young and mother limited |
|
|
Placental internal development
|
placenta+umbilical cord
|
|
|
Placenta+umbilical cord
|
outgrowths of four extra-embryonic membranes:
amnion, chorion, allantois, yolk sac. |
|
|
Gestation
|
three trimesters
1st: fetus 9cm brain, eyes, gonads, limbs, liver, skeleton 2nd: 30-36 cm face, toes, fingers 3rd: antibodies |
|
|
Protozoans
|
movement of gases and nutrients through simple diffusion
Intracellular digestion VS. coelenterates>extracellular digestion,nerve net |
|
|
Cnidarians(coelenterates)
|
two cell thick
cells are in direct contact with either internal or external environment No need for a specialized circulatory system |
|
|
Arthropods
|
open circulatory systems(one way, two opening digestive tract)
interstitial fluid in direct contact with body tissues through dorsal vessel and into sinuses(uric acid>malphigian tubules) like annelids but with specialized sensory organs |
|
|
Annelids(earthworms)
|
Closed circulatory system (one way, two opening digestive tract)
aortic loops connect dorsal to ventral vessel primitive central nervous system with fused ganglia |
|
|
Cardiovascular system
|
four chambered heart, network of blood vessels and blood
|
|
|
Blood pump(path)
|
aorta>arteries>arterioles>capillaries>
venules>veins |
|
|
Capillary walls
|
exchange of nutrients, cellular waste product, gases occurs (diffusion)
enzymes, hormones |
|
|
Heart(right side)
|
pumps deoxygenated blood into pulmonary circulation(lungs)
|
|
|
Heart(left side)
|
pumps oxygenated blood into systemic circulation
|
|
|
Atria
|
Upper chambers of the heart(thin wall)
|
|
|
Ventricles
|
Lower chambers of the heart(extremely muscular)
generates force that propels system regulation pumps against a higher resistance |
|
|
Atriovascular valves
|
between atria and ventricles
prevent backflow into the atria |
|
|
Tricuspid valve
|
valve on the right side of the heart
three cusps |
|
|
Mitral valve
|
valve on the left side of the heart
two cusps |
|
|
Semilunar valves
|
three cusps
aortic valve(between the left ventricle and aorta) pulmonic valve(between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery) |
|
|
Heart pumping cycle
|
systole and diastole; make up heartbeat
|
|
|
Systole
|
period during which ventricles contract
|
|
|
Diastole
|
period of cardiac muscle relaxation
blood drains into all four chambers |
|
|
Cardiac output
|
total volume of blood pumped by left ventricle per minute
heart rate*stroke volume(volume pumped out of the left ventricle per contraction) |
|
|
Contraction(mechanism)
|
sinoatrial node(SA)>impulse>atrioventricular node(AV)> bundle of His(AV bundle))
>Purkinje fibers(walls of both ventricules) |
|
|
Cardiac contraction(control)
|
originated and regulated by the sinoatrial node(the pacemaker: SA node)
|
|
|
Autonomous nervous system
|
modifies rate of heart contraction
|
|
|
Parasympathetic system
|
innervates heart via the vagus nerve
causes decrease in heart rate |
|
|
Sympathetic system
|
innervates heart via the cervical and upper thoracic ganglia
increase in heart rate |
|
|
Adrenal medulla
|
exert hormonal control via epinephrine(adrenaline)
increase in heart rate, contraction of blood vessels |
|
|
Three types of blood vessels
|
arteries, veins, capillaries
|
|
|
Arteries
|
thick-walled, elastic, muscular vessels
transport oxygenated blood into the system(except pulmonary arteries) |
|
|
Veins
|
relatively thin-walled, non-elastic,
conduct deoxygenated blood towards the heart(except pulmonary veins) |
|
|
Capillaries
|
thinnest of all three types of vessels
red blood cell go through them single file |
|
|
Lymphatic system
|
secondary circulation system distinct from the cardiovascular circulation
vessels, containing interstitial fluid(lymph), run parallel to blood vessels absorption of fats, joins cardiovascular system at thoracic duct |
|
|
Interstitial fluid(lymph)
|
can cross from lymphatic system to cardiac system
keep fluid constant |
|
|
Lymph nodes
|
swellings along lymph vessels containing phagocytic cells(leukocytes) that filter(remove/destroy foreign particles and pathogens) lymph
|
|
|
Blood
|
4-6 liters human body
55% liquid: plasma(nutrients, repiratory gases, hormones, wastes, blood proteins(immunoglobins) 45% cellular components(white/red blood cells, platelets) |
|
|
Fungi
|
cell wall made of chitin
eukaryotic, membrane bound organelles heterotrophs; obtain nutrients by absorption have filaments called hyphae and the whole thing called mycelium No centrioles |
|
|
Erythrocytes
|
red blood cells/250M hemoglobins(1B oxygen)
hemoglobin+oxygen=oxyhemoglobin formed in bone marrow(lose nuclei, mitochondria, membranous organelles), circulate for 120 days then phagocytized higher affinity of O2 than for CO2 |
|
|
Leukocytes
|
white blood cells
macrophages, lymphocytes |
|
|
Macrophages
|
go from blood to tissues
phagocytize foreign material and organisms such as bacteria |
|
|
Lymphocytes
|
involved in later immune protection
production of antibodies(B cells) cytolysis of infected cells(T cells) humoral and cell-mediated immunity |
|
|
Platelets
|
cell fragments, no nuclei
involved in clot formation and wound healing |
|
|
Clotting
|
Platelets>release a chemical(when in contact with exposed collagen) >cause agglutination of many platelets(plug)
platelets+damaged tissue>thromboplastin(clotting factor) Liver>prothrombin+ thromboplastin>thrombin fibrinogen+thrombin> fibrin fibrin>coat |
|
|
Fibrin
|
threads coat damage area
trap blood cells |
|
|
Serum
|
fluid left after blood clotting
|
|
|
Humoral immunity
|
involves production of antibodies
|
|
|
Cell mediated immunity
|
cell that combat fungal/bacterial infection
|
|
|
Active immunity(humoral)
|
production of antibodies during immune response
through vaccination, requires weeks to build up |
|
|
Vaccination
|
weakened, inactive or related form of an antigen
|
|
|
Passive immunity(humoral)
|
transfer of antibodies produced by another individual or organism
short lived, but acquired immediately ex: maternal antibodies, gamma globulin(blood containing antibodies against hepatitis |
|
|
Non-specific defense mechanism
|
skin, mucous-coated epithelia, macrophages, inflammatory response, interferons
|
|
|
Skin
|
physical barrier against bacterial invasion
pores> sweat( enzyme) tbreaks bacterial cell walls |
|
|
Mucous-coated epithelia
|
filter and trap foreign particles
|
|
|
Macrophages
|
engulf and destroy foreign particles
|
|
|
Inflammatory response
|
injured blood cells>histamine>blood vessels dilate
>influx of blood+granulocytes>phagocytize foreign material accompanied by a fever(retards bacterial growth, rise in T) |
|
|
Interferons
|
produced by cells under viral attack
prevent spread of virus interfere with viral replication |
|
|
Allergic reactions
|
inappropriate reactions to food and pollen
cause formation of antibodies and release of histamine |
|
|
Transplants
|
can be rejected as a result of immune response
immuno-suppressing drug decrease the chance of rejection |
|
|
ABO blood types
|
A(antigen A, anti-B), B(antigen B, anti-A, Ab(antigens A and B, no antibodies, universal recipient), O(no antigen, antibodies A, B, universal donor)
|
|
|
Rh factor
|
another antigen
important in pregnancy Rh- produces Rh+ antibodies Rh+ individual affected ex: fetus, erythroblastosis fetalis |
|
|
Translocation(plants)
|
circulation in plants
|
|
|
Stem
|
primary organ of transport in plants
|
|
|
Vascular bundle
|
runs up and down the stem
contains xylem, phloem and cambium |
|
|
Xylem
|
thick walled(provide rigidity to plant), inside vascular bundle
transport minerals and water up stem old/inner:heartwood ;new/outer:sapwood two types: tracheids and vessel cells |
|
|
Rise of water in xylem
|
transpiration pull, capillary action, root pressure
|
|
|
Transpirational pull
|
as water evaporates from leaves created vacuum pulls water up stem
|
|
|
Capillary action
|
liquid rises up thin tube due to surface tension and interaction tube/liquid
|
|
|
Root pressure
|
water entering root hairs exerts pressure which pushes water up stem
|
|
|
Phloem
|
thin walled cells outside of vascular bundle
transport nutrients(carbohydrates produced in leaves) down stem sieve tube cells and companion cells |
|
|
Cambium
|
actively dividing, undifferentiated cells
give rise to phloem and xylem cells |
|
|
Layers of tree
|
epidermis>cortex>phloem>cambium>xylem>pith
|
|
|
Pith
|
storage of nutrients, plant support
|
|
|
Fibrovascular bundle
|
absorb materials through root hairs
anchor plants, storage for energy reserves |
|
|
Root hairs
|
specialized cell at the root
increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals from soil. |
|
|
Endocrine glands
|
synthesize and secrete hormones directly into circulatory system
|
|
|
Exocrine glands
|
secrete substances transported by ducts
|
|
|
Adrenal glands
|
on top of kidneys
adrenal cortex+adrenal medulla |
|
|
ACTH
|
>adrenal cortex>corticosteroids
control release of adrenal cortical hormones |
|
|
Corticosteroids
|
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids,
cortical sex hormones |
|
|
Glucocorticoids
|
cortisol,cortisone
raise blood/plasma glucose levels protein breakdown, gluconeogenesis, decrease protein synthesis |
|
|
Mineralcorticoids
|
aldosterone
increase in plasma levels of sodium and potassium rise in blood volume and blood pressure |
|
|
Cortical sex hormones
|
androgen
masculinizing effects |
|
|
Adrenal medulla
|
>epinephrine, norepinephrine (catelochamines) both neurotransmitters
conversion of glycogen in liver and muscles increase in the basal metabolic rate |
|
|
Anterior pituitary gland
|
FLAT:tropic
FSH,LH,ACTH,TSH PIG:direct Prolactin, GH |
|
|
Tropic hormones(anterior pituitary)
|
stimulate endocrine glands to release hormones
TSH: thyroid gland to synthesize thyroxin ACTH:adrenal gland to synth. glucocorticoids |
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg
|
random mating, no natural selection/(em)migration/mutations, large population
|
|
|
p vs p^2
|
p frequency of allele
p^2: frequency of individuals |
|
|
Law of Segregation
|
two alleles per trait
separate during gametogenesis (meiosis) homologous pass on a recessive or dominant allele |
|
|
Law of Independent assortment
|
non-homologous chromosomes separate independently
|
|
|
Glycolysis
|
glucose>pyruvate
NAD+>NADH (2ATP produced) |
|
|
Fermentation
|
no aerobic respiration, no more ATP produced
pyruvate>ethanol(yeast+CO2) or lactic acid(muscle cells) in cytoplasm |
|
|
Pyruvate decarboxylation
|
pyruvate> acetyl-CoA
in mitochondrial matrix cost 2 ATP |
|
|
Krebs cycle
|
acetyl-CoA>4 CO2
in mitochondrial matrix 2 ATP produced |
|
|
ETC/oxidative phosphorylation
|
34 ATP produced
across inner mitochondrial membrane |
|
|
Lamarck theory
|
use and disuse
inheritance of acquired characteristics |
|
|
Darwin theory
|
inheritable genetic variations
more offspring>competition survival of the fittest Speciation(favorable traits perpetuated) mutation(causes variation) |
|
|
Rise in blood glucose levels
|
epinephrine(adrenal medulla)
GH, glucorticoids, glucagon |
|
|
Direct hormones
|
directly stimulate target organs
GH, prolactin, endorphin |
|
|
GH
|
promotes bone muscle growth
deficiency>dwarfism overproduction>gigantism(acromegaly) |
|
|
Prolactin
|
stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands
|
|
|
Posterior Pituitary
|
does not synthesize hormones
stores and releases oxytocin and ADH |
|
|
Oxytocin
|
increase strength & frequency of muscle contractions
>milk secretions in mammary glands(suckling) |
|
|
ADH(vasopressin)
|
antidiuretic hormone
promotes water reabsorption and increased blood volume |
|
|
Hypothalamus
|
above pituitary gland
act on PG through negative feedback and inhibiting/releasing hormones via portal vein produce oxytocin and ADH controls sex drive, thirst, hunger, water balance, blood pressure, temperature regulation |
|
|
GnRH
|
example of releasing hormone
|
|
|
Thyroid
|
important for growth, neurological development, increase metabolic rate
produce thyroid hormones and calcitonin |
|
|
Hypothyroidism
|
slowed heart rate, fatigue
cretinism(in infants) mental retardation, short stature, obesity |
|
|
Hyperthyroidism
|
overstimulation, increased metabolic rate, excessive sweat, weight loss
bulge in both(goiter) |
|
|
Calcitonin
|
decrease Ca2+ levels in blood
cause retention of calcium by bone VS. parathyroid |
|
|
Pancreas
|
exocrine and endocrine organ(islets of Langer hans: glucagon and insulin)
|
|
|
Glucagon
|
protein degradation(gluconeogenesis)
increase blood glucose levels |
|
|
Insulin
|
decrease blood glucose levels
VS. glucagon underproduction>diabetes mellitus(hyperglycemia) |
|
|
Parathyroid glands
|
VS. calcitonin
increase blood Ca2+ levels(volume) cause release of calcium from bone |
|
|
Kidney
|
produce renin>angiotensin>angiotensin I> angiotensin II> adrenal cortex> aldosterone> absorption of sodium> increase in water
increase in blood volume and pressure |
|
|
Gastrointestinal hormones
|
stomach>gastrin>gastrin glands> HCl
|
|
|
Small intestine
|
small intestine>secretin>pancreas>sodium bicarbonate> neutralizes chyme
small intestine>cholecystokinin>contraction gallbladder>bile release duodenum, ileum, jejunum |
|
|
Pineal gland
|
secretes melatonin
|
|
|
Melatonin
|
regulation of circadian rhythms(24 hours), regulated by envrtal light/dark cycles
skin lightening VS. MSH(skin darkening) |
|
|
Hormones
|
2 groups
peptide hormones vs. steroid hormones |
|
|
Peptide hormones
|
specific surface recptors
act via secondary messengers short action |
|
|
Steroid hormones
|
intracellular receptors
hormone/.receptor binding to DNA promotes transcription of specific genes long action |
|
|
Auxins
|
involved in plant growth pattern
phototropism and geotropism stimulate production of new xylem |
|
|
Phototropism
|
shoots of plants bend toward light sources
auxin supply reduced on side exposed to light ex: indoleacetic acid |
|
|
Geotropism
|
negative vs. positive
negative: away from gravity positive: toward gravity(side with more auxins penalized) |
|
|
Gibberellins
|
stimulate the production of new phloem cells by cambium
inhibit formation of new roots |
|
|
Kinins
|
promote cell division
work best in conjunction with auxin |
|
|
Ethylene
|
stimulates fruit ripening
aging |
|
|
Inhibitors
|
block cell division (VS. kinins)
maintain dormancy of buds and seed of plants in winter and autumn ex: abscisic acid |
|
|
Anti-auxins
|
regulate activity of auxins
|
|
|
Bone
|
organic portion(proteins, carbohydrates..) +inorganic (calcium, phophate...)
|
|
|
Bone(types)
|
two types
compact(hard) + spongy(spicules) |
|
|
Cartilage
|
softer than bone
made of chondrin(produced by chondrocytes) no blood or lymph vessels |
|
|
Muscle
|
smooth, cardiac and skeletal
|
|
|
smooth, cardiac, skeletal
|
one nuclei, not striated, involuntary(smooth)
one nuclei, striated, involuntary(cardiac) many nuclei, striated, voluntary(skeletal) |
|
|
Ossification
|
intramembranous(undifferentiated cells, skull) vs. endochondral(cartilage template, long bones)
|
|
|
Axial skeleton
|
skull, rib cage, vertebral column
|
|
|
Appendicular skeleton
|
arms, legs, pectoral and pelvic girdles
|
|
|
Bone structure
|
long bone(diaphysis(marrow cavity))
and rounded cells(epiphysis(spongy bone)) |
|
|
Epiphyseal plate
|
site where longitudinal growth occurs(cartilage to bone)
between diaphysis and epiphysis |
|
|
Compact bone(canal)
|
Haversian canals along bone
(blood, lymph vessels, nerves, connective tissue) |
|
|
Osteon
|
Haversian canal+lamellae
|
|
|
Lacunae
|
host osteocytes
connected to Haversian canals through canaliculi |
|
|
Red marrow
|
blood and immune cells(stem cells0
|
|
|
Yellow marrow
|
store fat
|
|
|
Bone remodeling
|
bone resorption and bone formation
|
|
|
Osteoblasts
|
bone formation
produce collagen(>bones) regulated by parathyroid gland |
|
|
Osteoclasts
|
bone resorption
break down bone regulated by osteoblasts |
|
|
Joints(three)
|
immovable, partly movable, synovial
low to high flexibility |
|
|
Muscles
|
form antagonistic pairs
when one contracts the other relaxes |
|
|
Bone marrow
|
produce immune cells
lymphocytes, monocytes, leukocytes, B and T cells |
|
|
Thymus
|
secretes thymosin
stimulates pre-T cells to mature |
|
|
Spleen
|
storage for blood, filters lymph and blood
|
|
|
Immune response
|
T cell response vs. B cell response
|
|
|
T cell response
|
cellular response
direct action of T cells |
|
|
B cell response
|
humoral response
production of anitbodies |
|
|
T cells
|
cytotoxic, suppressor, helper
memory T cells mature in Thymus |
|
|
Cytotoxic T cells
|
destroy cells that are infected by a pathogen recognized by T cells
|
|
|
helper T cells
|
coordinate the immune response of other cells by secreting lymphokines (interleukins)
|
|
|
Suppressor T cells
|
regulates T and B cells to decrease activity
|
|
|
B cells
|
Igs, memory B cells
mature in Bone marrow |
|
|
MHC class I
|
proteins on the surface of all cells
|
|
|
MHC class II
|
proteins on the surface of immune cells(macrophages, B cells and T cells)
|
|
|
Antibodies
|
light and heavy chain joined by disulfide bonds
constant vs. variable region(binds to antigen) |
|
|
Epitope
|
variable region on the surface of an antigen
|
|
|
Immune response
|
primary vs secondary response
after first exposure to a antigen the immune system reacts faster when it reinfects |
|
|
Immunological memory
|
provided by memory cells after first exposure to an antigen
survive a long time |
|
|
Small intestine
|
digestion of fats
absorption of carbohydrates |
|
|
Photosynthesis
|
6CO2 + 12H2O+ sunlight> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
opposite of respiration |
|
|
Photsynthesis(light reactions)
|
take place in grana
light energy produces ATP oxygen and NADPH produced |
|
|
Photosynthesis(Calvin cycle)
|
takes place in stroma
use ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into organic material light not required |
|
|
Inhalation
|
diaphragm contracts and flattens out, chest cavity increases
external intercostal muscles contract >rib cage up and out |
|
|
Exhalation
|
diaphragm/external intercostal muscles relaxe, curves upward
chest cavity decreases, air pushed out |
|
|
External vs internal intercostal
|
antagonistic muscles found in the chest
|
|
|
Lung
|
surrounded by two membranes
parietal(outer) and visceral plate(inner) in between interpleural space |
|
|
INterpleural space
|
its puncture causes the lungs to collapse
|
|
|
Ventilation
|
regulated by medulla oblongata(respiratory centers)
|
|
|
Carbon dioxide(pH)
|
decreases pH reacts with water to form carbonic acid
|
|
|
Surfactant
|
substance that prevents alveolar collapse
|
|
|
Shunts in fetus
|
foramen ovale(right atrium and left atrium)
ductus arteriosus(pulmonary arteries and aorta) |
|
|
Comparative embryology
|
early in development different organisms have very similar set of genes(homeobox)
|
|
|
Comparative biochemistry
|
metabolism of different organisms based on same complex compounds
similarities in the genetic code |
|
|
Vestigial structures
|
structures or organs that seem to serve no useful function
|
|
|
Convergent evolution
|
convergent:analogous structures
selection pressure and ecological roles |
|
|
Divergent evolution
|
divergent: homologous structures
similar structures evolved from common ancestor |
|
|
Genetic drift
|
change in gene pool due to chance
the smaller the population the greater the impact |
|
|
Founder effect
|
a form of genetic drift
a small subset of population becomes isolated from original population |
|
|
Cerebellum
|
coordination and equilibrium
|
|
|
Consumers
|
first consumer eats producers
then n+1 consumer eat n consumer(n>=1) |
|
|
Producers
|
autotrophic plants and chemosynthetic bacteria
|
|
|
Nephron
|
removes urea from body
|
|
|
Epoglottis
|
prevents food from going into trachea
|
|
|
Prokaryotes(bacteria)
|
cell wall, cytosol, nucleiod(DNA), flagella, ribosome, cell membrane
|
|
|
Gram positive cell
|
peptidoglycan
|
|
|
Gram negative cell
|
LPS(lipopolysaccharide)
|
|
|
Photoheterotrophs
|
use light to generate energy
must obtain carbon in organic form |
|
|
Virus
|
genetic material surrounded by protein coat
|
|
|
Karyogamy
|
nuclear fusion
happens in fungi |
|
|
Endospores
|
may germinate into vegetative cells under the appropriate conditions
do not degrade compounds to generate energy/ synthesize molecules core wall permits extreme heat resistance |
|
|
Complement system
|
forms a membrane complex that results in cell lysis
|
|
|
IgA
|
prevent colonization of mucosal surfaces
|
|
|
IgM
|
opsonizing antibody(agglutination, binds to antigen for phagocytosis)
|
|
|
IgG
|
crosses the placenta
|
|
|
IgE
|
hypersensitivity response
|
|
|
Expressivity
|
severity of a disease when an individual has the recessive harmful type
|
|
|
Aerotolerant
|
grow equally throughout the tube
|
|
|
Bacteria(growth pattern)
|
lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, death phase
|
|
|
Exotoxin vs. endotoxin
|
exotoxin: produce by both gram+/-
cell endotoxin:produced only by gram- cells |
|
|
Non-cyclic vs. cyclic elctron flow
|
cyclic: only photosystem I
non-cyclic: reactions of photosystems 1 &2 both in light reactions |
|
|
Leaf(adaptations)
|
waxy cuticle:reduce transpiration, conserve water
palisade:elongated chloroplasts spongy layer guard cells |
|
|
Guard cells
|
open/close stomata
open during day to admit CO2 close at night to prevent transpiration |
