Pcat Biology

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Metabolism

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The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body.

Metabolism is divided into catabolic and anabolic reactions.

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Catabolic Reactions

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Part of the metabolism that breaks down large chemicals and release energy

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Anabolic Reactions

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Part of the metabolism that breaks down large chemicals and requires energy.

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Ingestion

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The acquisition of food and other raw materials.

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Digestion

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The process of converting food into a usable soluble form so that it can pass through membranes in the digestive tract and enter the body.

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Absorption

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The passage of nutrient molecules through the lining of the digestive tract into the body proper.

Absorbed molecules pass through cells lining the digestive tract by diffusion or active transport.

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Transport

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The circulation of essential compounds required to nourish the tissues and the removal of waste products from the tissues.

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Assimilation

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The building up of new tissues from digested food materials.

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Respiration

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The consumption of oxygen by the body. Cells use oxygen to convert glucose into ATP, a ready source of energy for cellular activities.

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Excretion

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The removal of waste products (such as carbon dioxide, water, and urea) produced during metabolic processes like respiration and assimilation.

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Synthesis

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The creation of complex molecules from simple ones (anabolism).

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Regulation

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The control of physiological activities. The body's metabolism functions to maintain its internal environment in a changing external environment, including regulation by hormones and the nervous system.

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Homeostasis

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Maintenance of the body's internal environment in a changing external environment.

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Irritability

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The ability to respond to a stimulus and is part of regulation.

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Growth

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An increase in size caused by a synthesis of new materials.

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Photosynthesis

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the process by which plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates. Sunlight is harnessed by chlorophyll to drive this reaction.

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Reproduction

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The generation of additional individuals of a species.

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Protoplasm

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The substance of life.

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What elements make up protoplasm?

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Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus.

Also traces of magnesium, iodine, iron, and calcium.

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Atom

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The unit of an element.

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Molecule

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The unit of a compound.

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Atoms joined by chemicals form ________.

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Compounds

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Inorganic Compounds

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compounds that do not contain the element Carbon including salts and HCl.

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Organic Compounds

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are made by living systems and contain carbon.

Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

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Animals store energy in this form.

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Glucose and Glycogen

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Plants store energy in this form.

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Starches

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Dehydration

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removing water

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Hydrolysis

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the process of adding water to break down large polymers into smaller subunits

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Lipids

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aka Fats and Oils

The chief means of food storage in animals.

Major component of fatty (adipose) tissue. [protection]

Consists of 3 fatty acid molecules bonded to a single glycerol backbone.

Have long carbon chains that give them their hydrophobic (fatty) character and carboxylic acid groups that make them acidic.

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Phospholipids

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contain glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and nitrogen-containing alcohol; e.g., lecithin (a major constituent of cell membranes) and cephalin (found in brain, nerves, and neural tissue.

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Waxes

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esters of fatty acids and monohydroxilic alcohols

They are found as protective coatings on skin, fur, leaves of higher plants, and on the exoskeleton of many insects; e.g., lanolin

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steroids

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have three fused cyclohexane rings and one fused cyclopentane ring

they include cholesterol, the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, and corticosteroids.

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Carotenoids

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fatty, acid-like carbon chains containing conjugated double bonds and carrying six-membered carbon rings at each end. These compounds are the pigments that produce red, yellow, orange, and brown colors in plants and animals.

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What are the two subgroups of carotenoids?

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carotenes

and

xanthophylls

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Porphyrins

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aka tetrapyrroles

contain four joines pyrrole rings

they are often complexed with a metal

EX. the poryphyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin.
Chlorophyll is complexed with Mg.

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What elements make up Proteins?

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C, H, O, and N.

also P and S

They are polymers of amino acids.

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peptide bonds

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the bonds that join amino acids

HOW? -- dehydration reactions

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structure of polypeptides aka peptides

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chains of peptide bonded amino acids

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Primary structure (PROTEIN)

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sequence of amino acids

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Secondary structure (PROTEIN)

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Based on hydrogen bonding between adjacent amino acids and results in (Beta)-pleated sheets or (alpha) helices.

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Tertiary structure (PROTEIN)

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3D structure that is based on R-group interactions between adjacent amino acids. Results in globular or fibrous proteins. The hydrophobic amino acids are crowded in the center with hydrophilic amino acids at the outer edge and periphery.

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Quaternary structure (PROTEIN)

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The interaction and joining of two or more independent polypeptide chains.

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simple proteins

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composed entirely of amino acids

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albumins and globulins

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these are primarily globular in nature

they are functional proteins that act as carriers or enzymes

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scleroproteins

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these are fibrous in nature and act as structural proteins

collagen is a scleroprotein

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conjugated proteins

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these contain a simple protein portion plus at least on non-protein fraction

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lipoproteins

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proteins bound to lipid

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mucoproteins

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proteins bound to carbohydrate

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chromoproteins

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proteins bound to pigmented molecules

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metalloproteins

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proteins complexed around a metal ion

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nucleoproteins

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proteins containing histone or protamine (nuclear protein) bound to nucleic acids

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What is the function of hormones?

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these are proteins that function as chemical messengers secreted into the circulation.

Insulin and ACTH are protein hormones.

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Describe the function of enzymes

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these are biological catalysts that act by increasing the rate of chemical reactions important for biological functions (e.g. amylase, lipase, and ATPase).

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describe the function of structural proteins

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these contribute to the physical support of a cell or tissue. They may be important for biological functions (e.g. collagen in cartilage, bone and tendons) or intracellular (e.g. proteins in cell membranes).

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describe the function of transport proteins

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these are carriers of important materials. for example, hemoglobin carries oxygen in circulation, and the cytochromes carry electrons during cellular respiration.

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describe the function of antibodies

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these bind to foreign particles (antigens), including disease-causing organisms, that have entered the body

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define substrate

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the molecule that is acted upon by the enzyme

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The area on each enzyme to which the substrate binds is called _________

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active site

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3 key properties of enzymes

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1. Enzymes do NOT alter the equilibrium constant.

2. Enzymes are NOT consumed in the reaction. This means that they will appear in both the reactants and the products.

3. Enzymes are pH and temperature sensitive, which optimal activity at specific pH ranges and temperatures.

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pH of the stomach

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pH= 2

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pH of the small intestine

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pH of the SI = 8.5

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what is competitive inhibition?

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an enzyme is inhibited by the inactive substrate or competitor at the active site

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what is noncompetitive inhibition?

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inhibition that occurs somewhere other than the active site

aka allosteric inhibition

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Cell Theory Summary

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All living things are composed of cells.

The cells is the basic functional unit of life.

The chemical reaction of life takes place inside the cell.

Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

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Describe the nucleus.

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The nucleus controls the activities of the cell, including cell division. It is surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The nucleus contains the DNA, which is complexed with structural proteins called histones to form chromosomes.

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Describe the nucleolus.

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A dense structure in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs.

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Decsribe ribosomes.

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Ribosomes are the sites of protein production and are synthesized by nucleolus. Free ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, whereas bound ribosomes line the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.

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Describe the endoplasmic reticulum.

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membrane-enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell, particularly those materials destined to be secreted by the cell.

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Define Golgi apparatus.

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The Golgi apparatus receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them (e.g. glycosylation), repackages them into vesicles, and distributes them to the cell surface by exocytosis.

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Define mitochondria.

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Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration within the cell and hence the suppliers of energy. Each mitochondria is bounded by an outer and inner phospholipid bilayer.

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Define Cytoplasm

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Most of the cell's metabolic activity occurs in the cytoplasm.

Transport within the cytoplasm occurs by cyclosis (streaming movement within the cell).

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cyclosis

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streaming movement within the cell

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Vacuole/Vesicle

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Vacuoles and vesicles are membrane-bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed or digested by the cell.

Vacuoles are larger than vesicles and are more likely to be found in plant than in animal cells.

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Centrioles

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involved in spindle organization during cell division and are not bound by a membrane

animal cells usually have a pair of centrioles that are oriented at right angles to each other and lie in a region called the centrosome.

Plant cells DO NOT have centrioles.

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Lysosomes

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membrane-bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion

lysosomes break down material ingested by the cell

injured or dying tissue may "commit suicide" by rupturing the lysosome membrane and releasing its hydrolytic enzymes; this process is called autolysis

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cytoskeleton

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supports the cell

maintains its shape

functions in cell motility

it is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments