Pathophysiology

Front 1

What are neural tube defects?

Back 1

Failure of either end of the neural tube to close properly resulting in defects of the nervous system and the surrounding tissue

Front 2

What is thought to cause neural tube defects?

Back 2

Associated with the deficiency in folic acid in early part of pregnancy along with genetic factors

Front 3

How are neural tube defects diagnosed prenatally?

Back 3

an elevated concentration of alpha fetoprotein (AFP), which is produced by the fetus’s liver, in screening prenatal maternal blood tests or in amniotic fluid. It can be confirmed by an ultrasound exam

Front 4

What is spina bifida?

Back 4

Failure of the vertebral spines or arches to develop. It usually occurs in the lower back regions and affects spinal cord and menengies (layers) to varying degrees.

Front 5

What are the degrees of severity and how is spina bifida diagnosised?

Back 5

the arches are missing and it can be fatal to no symptoms. Spinal cord and meninges normal. diagnosed with x-ray

Front 6

What is meningocele

Back 6

the arches are missing and the menenges project through space, the spinal cord is normal. Cystic swelling beneath the skin is filled with CSF.

Front 7

What is myelomeningocele

Back 7

arches missing. Meninges and the spinal cord project through the space

Front 8

What is myelocele?

Back 8

arches missing, neural tube fails to fuse and there is no overlying skin. It is the most severe of spina bifida cases. CSF leaks out of the undeveloped cord. Death usually occurs from infection. This is the most severe . The thin membrane ruptures and leaks CSF. There is an open plate on the surface of the body.

Front 9

How are they treated?

Back 9

Surgery

Front 10

How are neural tube defects prevented?

Back 10

Folic acid intake

Front 11

What is anencephaly?

Back 11

Failure of normal development of brain and cranial cavity. The head to the neural tube doesn’t close, the brain stem is open

Front 12

What is the result of anencephaly?

Back 12

brain being open and exposed within the skull, this is fetal.

Front 13

What is hydrocephalus?

Back 13

Build up of CSF in the brain. Literally translates of water on the brain

Front 14

What causes hydrocephalus?

Back 14

CSF continually circulates through the central nervous system. Secrestion of CSF continues even with a block in flow of fluid through the ventricles. This causes the tissues to be compressed

Front 15

What does hydrocephalus do to the ventricles, brain tissue, and the head?

Back 15

ventricles proximal to the site distend compression atrophy (breaks down) of the brain tissue around the dilated ventricles. This leads to a displacement of structures, which can cause the brain to shift. This can also lead to an enlarged head in babies

Front 16

What causes congenital hydrocephalus?

Back 16

congenital obstruction or abnormal formation of adequate or absence of openings in the roof of the 4th ventricle

Front 17

What is the end result of congenital hydrocephalus?

Back 17

head enlarges as the ventricles dilate because cranial structures have not fused

Front 18

What causes acquired hydrocephalus?

Back 18

Obstruction of CSF by tumor or adhesions blocking opening in the 4th ventricle. Fibrous adhesions following meningitis (coverings of the brain are infected and inflamed). Blockage secondary to a brain tumor

Front 19

What is the end result of acquired hydrocephalus?

Back 19

The ventricles dilate Head does not enlarge because this is mainly in adults

Front 20

How is hydrocephalus treated?

Back 20

shunt of the CSF into the venous system. This will reroute the flow of CSF from dilated ventricles into another part of the body where it can be absorbed

Front 21

What is a ventriculoatrial shunt?

Back 21

a tube from the ventricles inserted into jugular vein to right atrium.

Front 22

What is a ventriculoperitoneal shunt?

Back 22

tube from the ventricles into the peritoneum.

Front 23

Where does the shunt go when treating a fetus?

Back 23

the amniotic cavity.

Front 24

Why are shunts used to treat hydrocephalus?

Back 24

It decreases the pressure and arrests further damage.

Front 25

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

Back 25

Progressive degenerative disease affecting synapses within the cortex causing progressive loss of neurons with atrophy of the cerebral cortex

Front 26

What is the amygdala is responsible for?

Back 26

Emotions

Front 27

What is the hippocampus responsible for?

Back 27

taking short term memory and storing it for long term memory.

Front 28

What is the outcome of Alzheimer’s?

Back 28

There can be progressive mental deterioration. This will cause failure of recent memory as well as mental difficulties in thinking, reasoning, and judgment. Characteristics associated with emotional disturbances include depression, anxiety, and irritability.

Front 29

What are the anatomic features of Alzheimer’s?

Back 29

Neurofibrillary tangles is the thickening of neurofilaments. This displaces the nucleus of the neurons. Neurotic plaques are clusters of thick, broken neurofilaments. What are the biochemical features of Alzheimer’s? abnormalities and brain enzyme deficiencies are acetylcholine and the acetylcholine synthesizing enzyme

Front 30

How is Alzheimer’s diagnosed?

Back 30

Diagnosis of exclusion. The conformation of alzhymers can be made at the autopsy

Front 31

How is Alzheimer’s treated?

Back 31

no specific treatment. Some drugs may temporarily inprove cerebral function. For example, cholinesterase inhibitors (aricept, Exelon) will break down the acetylcholine.

Front 32

How does treatment change the course of Alzheimer’s?

Back 32

increases brain functions temporarily

Front 33

What is multiple sclerosis?

Back 33

Probably autoimmune disease initiated by a viral infection in genetically predisposed individuals. This activates T lymphocytes, monocytes target the myelin proteins (which acts as insulation of the axons around the neurons), and destroys the myelin and causes glial scarring.

Front 34

What are the S/S of MS?

Back 34

Neurological symptoms depend on the location of plaques. Periodic episodes of actue neurologic disturbances followed by recovery and remission.

Front 35

What are the results of MS?

Back 35

Eventually neurologic disabilities become permanent due to multiple areas of glial tissue scarring that impair conduction of nerve impulse to brain and spinal cord

Front 36

What are the manifestations of MS?

Back 36

.

Front 37

How is MS diagnosed?

Back 37

MRI showing plaque in CNS around ventricles

Front 38

How is MS treated?

Back 38

corticosteriods to promote recovery from acute episodes. Beta interferon: to reduce frequency of relapses. Immunosupressive therapy. And plasma exchange (plasmapheresis) can be used short term for severe attacks. This will exchange/ filter blood plasma to settle down the immune response.

Front 39

What is Parkinson disease?

Back 39

progressive loss of neurons in substantia nigra of midbrain. This results in reduced dopamine in the substantia nigra.

Front 40

What causes Parkinson disease?

Back 40

U/K etiology

Front 41

What are the characteristics of Parkinson?

Back 41

rigidity caused by increased tone in all muscles. The mechanism of this is unknown. Slow and reduced movements, such as reduced blinking, expressionless face, not arm movements with walking. Stooped posture, resting tremor due to increased oscillatory discharge in basal ganglia nuclei (thalamic feedback). This increases during emotional stress and decreases during voluntary movement.

Front 42

How is Parkinson treated?

Back 42

depleated neutotransmitters to specific locations- L-Dopa (levodopa). These are precursors of dopamine. Also, an injection of embryonic stem cells to try to replace the lost and damaged cells of the basal ganglia.

Front 43

How does treatment change the course Parkinson?

Back 43

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