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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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a Cell
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The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent functioning. Contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles and are surrounded by a cell membrane
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a Tissue
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An aggregation of morphologically similar cells and associated intercellular matter acting to perform specific functions in the body
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What are the 4 basic types of tissue?
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Muscle, nerve, epithelial, connective
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Organ
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A structural part of a system of the body that is composed of tissues and cells that enable it to perform a particular function
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Pathology
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The science of the causes and effects of diseases
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Disease
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a condition in which the presence of an abnormality of the body causes a loss of normal health
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Epidemiology
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The incidence, distribution and possible control of disease and other factors contributing to health eg malaria distribution and the anopheles mosquito
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Aetiology
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the cause of a disease eg a pathogen is the cause of an infection
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Pathogenesis
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The mechanism through which aetiology operates to produce the pathological and clinical manifestations eg inflammation is the process of tissue injury in response to microganisms or other harmful agents
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Sequelae
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A condition that is the consequence of a previous disease or injury eg Pelvic Inflammatory disease after Chlamydia infection
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Immunohistochemistry
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refers to the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues
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primary
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a disease without apparent cause
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secondary
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the disease is a complication or manifestation of some underlying condition
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congenital
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genetic and nongenetic. Acquired during conception or embryogenesis or during postnatal life.
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environmental
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causes of disease include: infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Chemicals, radiation, or mechanical trauma
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multifactorial
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disease due to a combination of causes, proportionate risk of disease due to genetic or environmental factors.e.g. Genetic factors = cystic fibrosis /Multifactorial = type II diabetes/ environmental = traumatic head injury
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unknown aetiology
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classified as: idiopathic; primary; essential; spontaneous; cryptogenic
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risk factor
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the aetiology of a disease is unknown, but the disease is observed in people with certain habits such a smoking/drinking, or maybe associated with age or occupation
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inflammation
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in response to many microorganisms and other harmful agents causing tissue injury
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degeneration
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deterioration of cells or tissues in response to, Or failure of adaption to, a variety of agents. e.g. Parkinson's disease - neurodegenerative/idiopathic/risk factor = age
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symptoms
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subjective (felt/experienced) patient bias. Any sensation or change in bodily function that is experienced by a patient and is associated with a particular disease. E.g. pain, fever or nausea
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signs
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objective (observable) unbiased. An indication of disease/abnormality, which can be picked up upon medical examination What is looking for: e.g., increased blood pressure/cough/tender abdomen
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carcinogenesis
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the mechanism by which cancer-causing agents result in the development of tumours
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morbidity
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the sum of the effects of that disease on the patient. example A non-fatal myocardial infarction is an area of scarring on the myocardium, impairing its contractility and predisposing to heart failure
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mortality
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the probability that death will be the end result of that disease. Usually expressed as a percentage of patients presenting with the disease
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medicolegal
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most common type of autopsy. Autopsy to determine the cause of death and all to collect evidence that may be used in the persecution of those alleged to be responsible for the death
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clinical autopsy
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non-medicolegal. Performed on patients who die in the hospital with a clear diagnosis or other reasons, but much useful information can be gathered from autopsies
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Reversible cell injury
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functional and morphological changes that are reversible if the damaging stimulus is removed
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Irreversible cell injury
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further permanent morphologic changes recognized as cell death
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karyolysis
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irreversible injury - nuclear changes: _________ disintegration of the nucleus
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karyorrhexis
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irreversible injury - nuclear changes: _________ nuclear fragmentation, seen in necrotic cells
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pyknosis
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irreversible injury - nuclear changes: _________ the shrinkage of a nucleus in a necrotic cell
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fatty change (steatosis)
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cellular changes: _________ - vacuolation of cells is often due to the cumulation of lipid droplets as a result of a disturbance of ribosomal function and uncoupling of lipid from protein metabolism. The liver is commonly affected in this way by several causes such as alcohol, hypoxia or diabetes. Moderate degrees of _________ reversible but severe _________ may not be
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hydropic change (oncosis)
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cellular changes: in _________ the cytoplasm becomes pale and swollen due to the accumulation of fluid. _________ generally results from disturbances of metabolism, such of hypoxia or chemical poisoning. These changes are reversible, although they may herald irreversible damage if the casual injury is persistent
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Oxidative stress
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an imbalance between the production and manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage.
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how does depletion of ATP happen? what does it cause to happen inside the cell?
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the activity of the Na pump is reduced, leading to cell swelling and dilation of the ER. the metabolism of the cell is also altered leading to increased glycolysis, decreased glycogen, and decreased pH. the Ca pump can also fail, leading to an influx of Ca which can damage cellular components. protein synthesis is also reduced, and those that are made have un- or misfolded proteins, due to lack of O2/glucose, eventually leading to cellular injury/death
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Necrosis
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irreversible localized tissue death that occurs in groups of cells in response to disease or injury
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Coagulative Necrosis
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Macroscopic transformation of a completely dead area of tissue into a yellow dry mortar like mass (solidification) as a result of protein precipitation
Most common form of necrosis - commonly as a result of hypoxic conditions |
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Histological Features of Coagulative Necrosis
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Ghost Like cells - that have lost their nucleus but maintain their architecture
Cytoplasm looks coagulated and stains pink with eosin |
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Fat Necrosis
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Necrosis in which fat is broken down to fatty acids and glycerol
Fatty acids complex with calcium to form soaps - white chalky deposits |
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Causes of fat necrosis
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trauma - occurs in subcutaneous tissue
actue pancreatitis - leakage of enzymes from the pancreas leads to local fat necrosis |
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Caseous Necrosis
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necrotic tissue rich in lipids and resembles cottage cheese.
Soft white proteinaceous dead cell mass Associated with tuberculosis infection |
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Gangrene
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summation of effects of coagulative necrosis and dessication
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Effects of necrosis
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Functional
Inflammation Organisation and scar tissue formation |
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Apoptosis
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an intercellular programme that activates enzymes that degrade the cell's own DNA and proteins. In normal situations, it serves to eliminate unwanted or potentially harmful cells
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Physiological Reasons for Apoptosis
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Deletion of cell populations in embryogenesis
Hormone dependent involution Balance between cell death and proliferation of normal tissues Deletion of inflammatory cells after inflammatory response Deletion of self reactive lymphocytes in the Thymus |
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Pathological causes of Apoptosis
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DNA damage
Cytotoxic T cell induced apoptosis Hypoxia/ischaemia |
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Amyloid
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Accumulation of abnormal substance outside cells - Protein
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AL Amyloid
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Light chain Immunoglobulin
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AA amyloid
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Serum amyloid associated protein
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Pathogenesis of Amyloid
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Increased production of a normal protein or misfolding of protein leading to formation of stable aggregates (B pleated sheets) of protein
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Example of Primary Systemic Amyloidosis
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AL B cell neoplasm - multiple myeloma
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Example of Secondary Systemic Amyloidosis
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Chronic inflammation eg Rheumatoid Arthritis
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Pathological Pigmentation - 2 types
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Endogenous - ie from normal constituents of cells eg melanoma or Jaundice
Exogenous - ingested/inhaled/inoculated ingested - Argyria inhaled - coal dust injected - tattoo |
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Dystrophic Calcification
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Calcium deposition in areas of necrosis despite normal serum levels of calcium and no calcium metabolism derangement
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Metastatic Calcification
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Deposition of calcium in otherwise normal tissues - resulting from hypercalcemia secondary to disturbance in calcium metabolism
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What are the two types of Pathological Calcification
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dystrophic and metastatic
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What are the 5 Types of Necrosis
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Coagulation, Colliquative, Fat, Caseous, Gangrene
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Innate immunity
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Present in all individuals and is the body's first line of defence. Comprises cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms in a non-specific manner. It does NOT improve with repeated exposure
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Adaptive Immunity
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Requires prior exposure
It is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogenic growth. Specific through clonal selection. Shows a memory response - stronger on repeated exposure |
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Tolerance
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The failure to respond to an Antigen
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Innate
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_ immunity is the first line of defense and exhibits a rapid response, it is always present in the body, it does not become more powerful, it does not depend on lymphocyte recognition, it works in correspondence with the adaptive immune system, and is composed of external barriers, phagocytes, complement, etc.
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Adaptive
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requires recognition of lymphocytes, responds following the innate response (usually takes 7-10 days to completely mobilize, is antibody-mediated(humoral) and cell mediated) and becomes more powerful after the initial encounter.
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Antigen
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is any substance (as an immunogen or a hapten) foreign to the body that evokes an immune response either alone or after forming a complex with a larger molecule (as a protein) and that is capable of binding with a product (as an antibody or T cell) of the immune response.
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Antibody
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Plasma proteins (immunoglobulins) secreted by B cells that bind to specific antigens
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Epitope
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The part of Antigen that the Ab recognizes/binds to
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Affinity
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The strength of binding of one molecule to another
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B cell Receptor
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An Antibody expressed on the surface of the B cell as part of a receptor complex.
Binding of the BCR results in signalling to the B cell. Upon activation B cells secrete Antibody into the circulation |
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T Cell Receptor
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Receptor complex that is on the surface of T cells that recognises antigen when it is presented in a MHC molecule
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MHC1
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Molecules expressed on the surface of all nucleated cells
Present a sample of the peptides being produced within a cell to CD8+ T cells |
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MHC2
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Molecules expressed on the surface of professional antigen presenting cells. Presents a sample of peptides that have been phagocytosed by the antigen presenting cell to CD4+ T cells
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Antigen Presenting Cells definition
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Specialised cells that can process antigen and display peptide fragments in MHC2 to immune cells
Can trigger an immune response by displaying costimulator molecules |
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Antigen Presenting Cells
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Dendritic cells, Macrophages, B cells
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Primary Lymphoid Organs
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Thymus
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Secondary Lymphoid Organs
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Lymph nodes, spleen, MALT, Tonsils
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Margination
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accumulation and adhesion of leukocytes to the epithelial cells of blood vessel walls at the site of injury in the early stages of inflammation
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Neutrophils
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Dark multilobed nucleus cells with neutral cytoplasm
50-70% WBC Functions: Chemotaxis, Phagocytosis, Degranulation, Die locally, Margination |
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Chemotaxis
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The characteristic movement or orientation of an organism or cell along a chemical concentration gradient either toward or away from the chemical stimulus
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Granulocytes
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neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil and natural killer cells
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Phagocytes
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macrophage, neutrophil, dendritic cells, eosinophils
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