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164 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pathophysiology |
The study of not only cellular and organ changes that occur with a disease but also includes the effects the disease has on total body functions
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Disease |
Interruption, cessation, or disorder of a body system or organ structure that includes identifiable groups (like signs and symptoms)
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Etiology |
cause of a disease |
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risk factors |
when multiple factors predispose a person to a particular disease |
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Primary Prevention
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Detecting Disease Early when still asymptomaticExample: Pap Smear for detection of Cervical Cancer
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Tertiary Prevention
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Clinical Interventions that prevent further complicationsExample: Giving Amoxicillin for Strep Throat to prevent Otitis Media, Glomerulonephritis, Rheumatic Fever
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Cell Function PPT
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a |
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Cell Membrane |
Controls transport of materials from extracellular to intracellular ***Holds and binds receptors of hormones for other substances ***Participates in conduction of electrical currents in nerve and muscle cells ***Aids in cell growth and proliferation |
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Lipid BiLayer |
Lets substances in and out through diffusion and transport Called lipid bilayer because composed of 2 layers of fat cells Lipids are fats, like oil, are insoluble in water Each lipid molecule contains two regions: Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail |
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Active transport:
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actively pumps a molecule across the membrane against its natural process and requires ATP
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Passive Transport:
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includes diffusion (area of great to lesser concentration); facilitated diffusion (requires transport protein and moves only from higher to lower concentration) and Osmosis (areas of lower concentration to the side with higher concentration
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Lysosome:
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digestive system of cell
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Free ribosomes:
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site for protein synthesis
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Nucleus:
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control center of cell and contains DNA
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Metabolism:
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process where carbs, fats, and proteins are broken down
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Aerobic Metabolism
***** Anaerobic Metabolism |
yields 34 to 36 ATP
**** yields 2 ATP |
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Cellular Response to Stress, Injury, and Aging PPT
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Chemical Cellular Injury:
** Hypoxic Cell Injury: ** Ischemia ** Infarction ** Teratogens: ** Folic Acid Deficiency: |
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Chemical Cellular Injury:
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Lead is mostly absorbed through the GI tract and lungs; lowers IQ levels and poor classroom performance; must check old homes for lead based pain
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Hypoxic Cell Injury:
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Deprives the cell of oxygen and interrupts metabolism and generation of ATP so oxygen is reduced in the cell; causes a power failure in the cell
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Ischemia
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impaired blood supple to a certain area and is reversible
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Infarction
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death of tissue due to sudden stop of blood supply; tissue death is permanent
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Teratogens:
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Agents that produce abnormal problems during fetal and embryonic development
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Folic Acid Deficiency:
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low level of FA during pregnancy is associated with neural tube defects in infants; women must receive 400 micrograms daily
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Connective tissue
Types of Connective Tissue Cells |
*** most abundant in the body
Fibroblasts – secrete the matrix * Adipocytes – contain molecule of fat and present in adipose tissue * Osteoblasts/Osteocytes – occur in bone * Leukocytes – WBC * Mast cells – secrete histamine which stimulates immune response (along side blood vessels) * Macrophages – destroy bacteria * Plasma Cells – secrete antibodies |
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Inflammation, Fever, and Disorders of WBC-RBC PPT
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LOOK UP PPT: |
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Inflammation
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is a nonspecific response to injury of tissue and may be acute or chronic;
*** Acute: triggered by stimuli such as infection; *** Chronic: longer duraction |
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Signs of inflammation
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redness, swelling, local heat, pain, and loss of function
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Fever
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is regulation by the hypothalamus and temperature >100.4F in less than 2 months of age is a medical emergency
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Electrolytes
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solutes that dissolve into charged ion such as NaCl becomes Na+ and Cl – in solution;
*** cations are +; anions are – |
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Nerve and muscle: Action potentials |
The interchange of K+ and Na+ across the cell membrane generates the membrane potential for transmittal of
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Acid Base Imbalances PPT
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Normal pH: 7.35-7.45
** Acidosis pH: falls below 7.35 ** Alkalosis pH: rises above 7.45 |
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Lungs influence acid base balance
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by excreting carbon dioxide
*** Characterized by: initiating system (respiratory or metabolic) **** pH problem (acidosis or alkalosis) |
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kidneys influence acid base balance
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by regulating bi-carbonate
**** Characterized by: **** initiating system (respiratory or metabolic) and ***** pH problem (acidosis or alkalosis) |
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Respiratory Acidosis:
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Excess carbon dioxide retention
*** ABG findings: *** pH: <7.35 *** HCO3: > 26 (if compensating) *** PaCO2: >45 |
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Respiratory Alkalosis
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excess CO2 excretion
*** ABG findings: *** pH: >7.45 *** HCO3: < 22 (if compensating) **** PaCO2: <35 |
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Metabolic Acidosis:
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excess HCO3 loss and acid retention
*** ABG findings: *** pH: >7.45 *** HCO3: > 26 *** PaCO2: >45 (if compensating) |
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Metabolic Alkalosis:
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HCO3 retention and acid loss
**** ABG findings: pH: >7.45 **** HCO3: > 26 **** PaCO2: >45 (if compensating) |
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Idiopathic
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the disease has no known cause
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Intrinsic
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the disease occurs due to malfunction or change within the body (age)
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Extrinsic:
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causes of the disease are from outside the body (chemical exposure, drugs, stress)
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The immune system
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protects itself from organisms that are infectious in nature and other harmful invaders through an elaborate network
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Bone Marrow
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Where B cells are produced and developed then these migrate to the lymph nodes
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Lymph Nodes
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Distributed along vessels throughout the body
***** Filter lymph fluid *** Remove Bacteria and toxins from circulatory system |
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Filter lymph fluid
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Which drainage body tissue and returns to the blood as plasma
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Thymus
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Located mediastinal area
*** Secretes hormones that enable lymphocytes to develop into mature T cells **** Remember… T cells attack foreign cells |
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Spleen
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Largest lymphatic organ
**** Macrophages live here that clear debris and process hgb |
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Tonsils
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TonsilsProduce lymphocytes
*** Location, location, location!!! * Allows them to guard the body against airborne pathogens |
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T Cells
** B cells |
produce antibodies that in turn will attack antigens
****** produce antiBodies that incapacitate the antigen |
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Cell mediated immunity
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when T cells respond directly to antigens then causes a destruction of target cells, such as rejection of transplant
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Humoral immunity
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destroys the bacteria and viruses preventing them from entering the host cells
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Diastole
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is the atria and ventricles relaxing and the blood flowing into the atria and ventricles
*** RESTING |
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systole
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systole is the ventricles contracting sending blood to the rest of the body
*** PUMPING |
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valvular disease
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Most common cause of low blood flow
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regurgitation
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A diseased valve allows the blood to flow backward
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increase cardiac workload
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the backflow causes the heart to have to pump more blood which in turn causes
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stenosis
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If the valve becomes restricted or tight
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Cardiovascular System A&P review:
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Cardiac muscle does have the intercalated discs which have the special connections to help transmit the action potential even faster which helps the coordinated heart as one unit and as the pumpAtria and ventricles must coordinate with each other and the myocardium must be healthy in order for the heart to work efficientlyCardiac Output (flow of blood through the whole circulatory system)Anything that increases resistance will cause it to slow down blood flow2 physiological components where blood flow is affected with resistance is the radius of the vessel (such as a smaller vessel (narrower) vessel will have to force its way through) and thicker blood (higher blood viscosity will have greater resistance because of characteristic of fluid itself)Increase resistance so will decrease the amount of blood flowLaminar is what we want (smooth, one directional pattern) and if we have a sudden change such as a narrowed vessel will cause turbulence (such as vibrating and moving abnormally)The coronary arteries are the myocardium own blood supply. The Left Anterioir Descending Coronary Artery (LAD) is the most important coronary artery because it goes down and supplies the left ventricle
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Pre-hypertension
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120/80 up to 139/89 |
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Stage 1 hypertension |
140/90 up to 159/99 |
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stage 2 hypertension |
above 160 / 100 |
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Coronary Heart/Artery Disease
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a heart disease due to impaired coronary blood flow usually due to atherosclerosis.
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Myocardial infarction
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a sudden blockage of one or more coronary arteries that stops blood flow to a part of the myocardium which quickly begins to die (infarct). Most MIs are common in the LV. Diagnosis of an MI includes cardiac enzymes (troponin increased); EKG changes (ST elevation). Signs includes: chest pressure that radiates down left arm; pain is not relieved by rest; diaphoresis; nausea; vomiting; and women experience non-traditional symptoms such as epigastric pain
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Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
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where the ventricular wall becomes enlarged, stiff, and less compliant while dilated cardiomyopathy is a gradual enlargement (dilation) of the ventricle chamber which typically leads to heart failure
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Acute Rheumatic Fever
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an inflammatory disease that may occur after having group A b-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis.
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Hypertensive Crisis and Emergencies:
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Severe HTN
** above 180/110 |
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HTN emergency
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HTN emergency is DBP >120
*** rapid organ target damage *** BP needs to be decreased gradually |
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Atherosclerosis:
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Development of fibrous, fatty lesions in the intima of large and medium sized arteries and this is the most common cause of coronary heart disease. Vessels become narrowed, blood flow decrease, and leads to ischemia
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Clubbing
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a sign of chronic hypoxia
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Gas exchange = ventilation + respiration
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respiration + ventilation = Gas exchange |
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Respiratory Bronchioles
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participate in gas exchange and alveolar sacs contain macrophages
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Alveoli
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the functional unit of the respiratory system
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Type 1 Alveolar Cells
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= gas exchange
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Type 2 Alveolar Cells
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= Produce, Store, and secrete surfactant
**** Surfactant lowers surface tension and lubricates; **prevents the collapse of the alveoli |
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Tuberculosis (TB):
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis is contracted through inhalation of bacilli (airborne) through bacteria traveling down the airways and settling in the alveoli
*** Primary TB: with initial inhalation, most stay asymptomatic and have latent TB while 5% develop active TB |
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Tuberculosis Signs and symptoms |
fever, weight loss, fatigue, night sweats, damage to lung tissue
Secondary TB: reinfection or reactivation of previously healed lesions Similar signs and symptoms but may also have a productive cough with hemoptysis TB |
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Tuberculosis Screening / tests |
Screening: Mantous test of 0.1cc PPD of TB intradermally and
***** re-evaluate 48 to 72 hours later for induration and erythema; **** induration of >15mm indicates latent TB ***** Chest Xray: screens for lung involvement |
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Pulmonary Embolism
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stops blood flow to a portion of the lungs and has the same risk factors as a DVT such as surgery or immobility.
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Pulmonary Embolism Signs / Symptoms |
dyspnea, tachycardia, tachypnea, restlessness, pleuritic pain
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Emphysema
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an abnornmal permanent enlargement of small airways and destruction of alveolar walls.
** The obstruction results from changes in lung tissue. ** The alveoli lose their elastic recoil, lungs become hyperinflated, and chest enlarges. |
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Emphysema Signs / Symptoms |
dyspnea on exertion and at rest;
** little cough or sputum; ** tachypneic; prolonged expiration and accessory muscle use; ** barrel chest; ** thin, ** leaning forward, ** pursed lips |
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HSV-1
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oral ulcers
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HSV-2
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genital ulcers
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Syphilis:
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treatment of PCN IM or IV; if left untreated can cause cardio or neuro problems
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HIV |
An HIV+ person is usually asymptomatic until CD4 count drops significantly;
**** screening test that is most common is called the ELISA or Oraquick; **** there is a 6 month window period which a person could test negative even though they are infected; **** symptoms occur when CD4+ counts drop below 500-350; ***** AIDS is when CD4 counts are less than 200 |
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Afferent arteriole
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the higher pressure side
*** and the glomerulus is actually the loops of capillaries ***so when we talk about the glomerulus we are technically talking about blood flow |
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GFR
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Glomerulus Filtration Rate
**** the amount of plasma filtered every MINUTE; **** shows how healthy the kidneys are **** BP is a BIG determinant of GFR |
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ADH |
antidiuretic hormone – increases water reabsorption
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RAA system
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is to regulate extracellular fluid volume mainly through sodium concentration.
**** Renin is released from the kidneys which creates angiotensin I then angiotensin II |
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Normal Urinalysis (U/A) |
Appearance and color (clear-slightly hazy, yellow-amber ****
pH (4.5 – 8.0) **** Protein (neg) **** Blood (neg) **** Glucose (neg) **** Specific gravity (1.010 – 1.025) **** Leukocytes (neg) |
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Renal System Disorders |
1. acute glomerulonephritis 2. Hemodialysis 3.Peritoneal Dialysis |
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Acute glomerulonephritis
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usually after an infectious process (often Group A b-hemolytic strep pharyngitis)
**** greater incidence in children and ***** usually begins 7 to 12 days post infection; ****** hematuria is present; ***** proteinuria; ***** oliguria; ****** edema; and ****** HTN ******* The most common bacteria of UTIs are E. Coli. |
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Hemodialysis
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an external filter and dialysis fluid is used to mimic the functions of the kidneys; recquires accessing a vein; usually done 3 times a week for 3 to 4 hours at a time
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Peritoneal Dialysis
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requires a catheter to be implanted in the peritoneum and the peritoneal lining as it serves as a filter; dialysis fluid is infused within the abdomen, allowed to dwell, then drained out
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Digestive System |
Salivary Glands produce saliva in order to moisten food and begins digestion of carbs and used to lubricate foodsEpiglottis serves as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynxPharynx plays an important role in respiratory due to the epiglottisBy the time food has left the small intestines, about 90% of the nutrients have been extracted from the food.Large intestines absorb waterSaliva: moistens dry foodDigestive Enzyme: begins digestion of carbMucus: serves as protective barrier and lubricantHydrochloric Acid: helps digest chemicallyEnzymes: disassemble large macromolecules like proteins, carbs, and lipidsBile: Breaks down large masses of lipids into tiny globules for easy digestionLiver stores extra glucose as glycogen and synthesizes proteins |
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Salivary Glands |
produce saliva in order to moisten food and begins digestion of carbs and used to lubricate foods
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Epiglottis |
serves as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynx
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Pharynx
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plays an important role in respiratory due to the epiglottis
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small intestines |
90% nutrients absorbed |
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large intestines |
water absorption |
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saliva |
moistens dry food |
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digestive enzyme |
begins carbohydrate digestion |
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mucus |
serves as protective barrier and lubricant |
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hydrochloric acid |
helps digest chemically |
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enzymes |
disassemble large macromolecules like proteins, carbs, and lipids |
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bile |
breaks down large masses of lipids into tiny globules for easy digestion |
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Liver |
Stores extra glucose as glycogen *** synthesizes protein |
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dysphagia (GI: dysphagia) |
difficulty swalling (dysphasia: don't confuse) |
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Pyrosis |
heartburn ** pain high in epigastric area ** behind sternum |
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Odynophagia |
pain caused by swallowing |
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regurgitation |
backflow of liquid / food into oral cavity ** feels like hot liquid (different from vomitting) |
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chronic reflux |
most common cause of esophagitis,
LES is “incompetent” and allows gastric contents back into the esophagus “GERD”; -often associated with hiatal hernias; -normally LES maintains a high-pressure closure at entrance to stomach, can be weakened by drugs, high gastric pressure |
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GERD signs / symptoms |
pyrosis (heartburn) 30 - 60 minutes after eating ** worsened by being horizontal ** belching, chronic cough, hoarseness |
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hiatal hernia
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a portion of the upper stomach and/or LES pushing through the hiatus across the diaphragm.
The sliding type is the most common and most of the times there is no symptoms and happens while supine. The rolling type causes the LES and junction to stay below the diaphragm and a portion of the stomach pushes up where strangulation may occur |
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Celiac Disease |
an intolerance to gluten, a protein found in many grains; gluten causes atrophy of the villi, flattening of the mucosa of SI, this reduces absorption of all nutrients; diarrhea, steatorrhea, weakness, general sx of malabsorption; control with a gluten-free diet
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malabsorption |
syndrome that results from several diseases of small and large intestines;
A failure of the intestine to absorb one or several nutrients across the mucosa into the blood; Symptoms result from abnormal contents in lumen and nutrient deficiency; sx: steatorrhea, flatulence, diarrhea, weight loss, edema, anemia, weakness |
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The spinal cord
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has 32 pairs of spinal nerves.
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Oxygen and glucose demand
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are constant in the brain
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Limbic system:
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not a specific area of the brain,
but a connection of several structures, ***** controls mood, emotions, sex drive, and memory |
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Muscle tone
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the normal state of muscle tension. You can feel it as you palpate the muscle while at rest and during passive stretching.
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Hypotonia
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less than normal muscle tone
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Flaccidity
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absent muscle tone
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Hypertonia, rigidity and spasticity
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higher than normal muscle tone
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Paralysis
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a loss of movement or loss of muscle function. Can have a sensory loss in affected area also.
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Paresis
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partial or incomplete paralysis
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Hemiparalysis
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the entire left or right side of the body paralysis
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Paraparaesis
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partial paralysis of the lower limbs
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Quadriparesis
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weakness is all 4 limbs
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Parkinson’s Disease:
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Disorder of dopamine production in the basal gangliaLack of dopamine
***** disrupts purposeful movement ***** Rigidity, tremor (esp. at rest), **** akinesia/bradykinesia, loss of postural reflexes ***** shuffling gait, ***** mask-like face |
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Multiple Sclerosis:
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Areas of myelin in CNS are destroyed and replaced by astrocytes
**** Average age of onset: 30 **** More common in women **** Result is hard, yellow plaques around nerves in the CNS |
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Normal intracranial pressure (ICP)
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0-15mm Hg
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Cerebral Perfusion Pressure
** Know how to calculate. |
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure = MABP – ICP (normal CPP is 70 to 100).
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Herniation
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a late effect of increased ICP, especially when increased ICP is d/t an injury or something acute.
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Infectious Meningitis
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can be viral or bacterial.
*** General symptoms are headache, nuchal rigidity, fever, pain throughout body, nausea/vomting. **** Remember that fever is most likely the culprit for bacterial meningitis. ***** Lumbar puncture is needed to diagnose and distinguish between viral and bacterial |
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Status Epilepticus:
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Emergency:
***** Continued seizure activity that doesn’t resolve on its own, **** generally “labeled” SE after about 20 minutes; |
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dementia |
most common cause: Alzheimer's disease |
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osteocytes |
mature bone cells |
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osteoblasts |
bone forming |
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osteoclasts |
bone destroying *** break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium |
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Closed (simple) fracture |
break that does NOT penetrate the skin |
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Open (compound) fracture |
break that penetrates the skin |
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greenstick fracture |
frays * hard to repair |
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Joints: |
Fibrous: immovable * cartilaginous: slightly movable * synovial : freely moveable |
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types of joint movement |
hinge: elbow / knee (extend / retract) * ball & socket: hip / shoulder (radial movement) * gliding: hand/feet (slide past each other) * saddle: thumb (concave / convex touching area) |
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arthritis |
osteoarthritis : most common / cartilage breakdown d/t wear & tear *** rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune disorder: first targets lining of joints |
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rheumatoid arthritis |
Autoimmune disorder
*** first targets the lining of the joints *** RA usually affects joint symmetrically, *** most frequently attacks the wrists, hands, elbows, shoulders, knees, and ankles. **** Rheumatoid factor helps in diagnosing. *** Antirheumatic drug such as Methotrexate to help with pain. |
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Carpal tunnel
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due to the compression of the median nerve ****
causes tingling, weakness, and numbness |
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spine problems |
scoliosis : abnormal curve ** kyphosis: deg. disc. disease: "humpback" ** lordosis: curve lower back: "swayback" |
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rickets |
d/t vitamin D deficiency |
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gout |
overload of uric acid |
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Muscular Dystrophy:
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A group of diseases that causes progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass
*** Main sign is progressive muscle weakness *** 2 types: Duchenne & Becker |
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Duchenne Muscular Distrophy |
most common type ** begins around age 2 to 3 *** frequent falls, ** difficulty getting up from lying or sitting, *** trouble running and jumping, ** waddling gait, ** walking on toes, *** large calf muscles muscle pain and stiffness, **** learning disabilities |
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Becker muscular distrophy |
similar symptoms as Duchenne ** milder / progress slower ** begins teens to mid 20's |
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complications of Muscular distrophy |
Inability to walk
** Shortening of muscles and tendons ** Breathing difficulties where some end up on ** ventilators ** Scoliosis due to weakened muscles ** Heart problems ** Swallowing problems (may need feeding tubes) |
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Tests for Muscular Distrophy |
Enzyme test
Damaged muscles release enzymes into the blood such as CK (creatine kinase)ElectromyographyElectrode needle inserted into the muscle and measures the electrical activity of the muscles Genetic testing Muscle biopsy Lung function tests heart monitoring tests |
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treatment for muscular distrophy |
Corticosteroids may help improve muscle strength and delay progression
Heart medications if heart becomes affected ** Physical therapy ** Braces ** Mobility aids (canes, walkers, etc.) ** Breathing assistance (sleep apnea device, ventilator) |
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Epidermis:
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the outer most layer also known as a cuticle;
** receives it’s nourishment from the dermis; ** avascular |
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Cells of the Epidermis
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Keratinocytes (90%) = Waterproofs and protects the skin, nails, and hair
*** Melanocytes (8%) = Produces melanin *** Merkel Cells = Slows Mechanoreceptors *** Langerhans’ Cells = Immunological defense |
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Fingerprints
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sweat films because made by your sweat pores; everybody’s are genetically determined
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Sebaceous Glands:
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Connect to hair follicles;
** Secrete a waxy, oily substance, ** causes blackheads; ** Secretion increases at puberty |
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Sweat Glands
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found just about everywhere on the body;
***** produces perspiration = water, salt, and metabolic wastes, such as urea. **** Function is to cool the body. |
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Burns:
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1st Degree Burns: epidermal damage (sunburn)
**** 2nd Degree Burns: epidermis and upper dermis (ex. Blisters) **** 3rd Degree Burns: entire thickness of skin |
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rule of 9's |
face: 4 1/2 back of head : 4 1/2 chest : 9% abdomen 9% top of back : 9% lower back 9% groin : 1% front of arm 4 1/2% back of arm 4 1/2 % front to leg 9% back of leg 9% |
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Basal Cell Carcinoma:
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skin cancer
*** most often appears on sun-exposed areas such as the face, scalp, ears, chest, back, and legs. *** The most common appearance of basal cell cancer is that of a small dome-shaped bump that has a pearly white color. *** Blood vessels may be seen on the surface. Basal cell cancer can also appear as a pimple-like growth that heals, only to come back again and again. *** A very common sign of basal cell cancer is a sore that bleeds, heals up, only to recur again |
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Melanoma:
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highly malignant type of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the cells that produce pigment.
Melanoma usually begins in a mole.A popular method for remembering the signs and symptoms of melanoma is the mnemonic "ABCD":Asymmetrical skin lesion.Border of the lesion is irregular.Color: melanomas usually have multiple colors.Diameter: moles greater than 6mm are more likely to be melanomas than smaller moles. |
