P409 Adaptations To Aerobic And Anaerobic Training(In-Focus & In-Review+Notes)

Front 1

Adaptations improve what 3 physiological systems?

Back 1

Pulmonary
Cardiovascular(rate limiter)
Muscular

Front 2

Notes: Aerobic Training

Back 2

improves central and peripheral blood flow and enhances the capacity of the muscle fibers to generate greater amounts of adenosine triphoshpate(ATP)

Front 3

Notes: Anaerobic Training

Back 3

increases metabolic function-short term; high-intensity endurance capacity; tolerance for acid-base imbalances; and muscle strength

Front 4

Notes: Cardiorespiratory Endurance

Back 4

is the development of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems'' ability to maintain oxygen delivery to working muscles during prolonged bouts of exercise as well as the muscles ability to utilize energy aerobically

Front 5

In-Focus

Back 5

Cardiorespiratory endurance, or aerobic endurance, is the ability of the whole body to sustain prolonged exercise involving relativity large muscle groups

Front 6

Notes: VO2max

Back 6

When exercise intensity increases, oxygen consumption eventually either plateaus or decreases slightly, even with further increases in workload, indicating a maximal VO2 has been reached

Front 7

Notes: Submaximal Endurance

Back 7

Steady-state submaximal heart rate at same exercise intensity measured before and after training is one physiological variable that can be use to objectively verify effect of training.

-Tests usually last 30-60 minutes

Front 8

Notes: Submaximal Endurance

Back 8

the capacity is more closely related to actual competitive endurance performance than VO2max and is likely determined by both the person's VO2max and the threshold for his or her onset of blood lactic acid accumulation (OBLA)--that point at which lactate begins to appear at a disproportionate rate on the blood

Front 9

Notes: What are the seven(7) Cardiovascular Adaptations to Training?

Back 9

-Heart Size
-Stoke Volume
-Heart Rate
-Cardiac Output
-Blood flow
-Blood pressure
-Blood volume

Front 10

Notes: What are the (4) components of the Oxygen Transport System?

Back 10

-Heart Size
-Blood flow, pressure, & volume

Front 11

Notes: Endurance Training and Heart Size change

Back 11

Training induced cardiac hypertrophy effects the LEFT VENTRICLE, the chamber increases in size and wall thickness, allowing for increased filling and therefore increased stroke volume

The total cross-sectional area of the heart increases

Front 12

In-Review

Back 12

Cardiorespiratory endurance refers to the ability to sustain prolonged, dynamic exercise. Its highly related to aerobic power

Front 13

In-Review

Back 13

Exercise scientists regard VO2max---the highest rate of oxygen consumption obtainable during maximal or exhaustive exercise--- as the best indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance

Front 14

In-Review

Back 14

Cardiac Output represents how much blood leaves the heart each minute

(a-v)O2 difference indicates how much oxygen is extracted from the blood by the tissues

According to the Fick equation, the product of these values is the rate of oxygen consumption------

-VO2 = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate X (a-v)O2 difference

-Q= Cardiac Output:stroke volume x heart rate...VO2 = Q x (a-v)O2 diff

Front 15

In-Review

Back 15

The left chamber of the heart adapts the most in response to endurance training

Front 16

In-Review

Back 16

The internal dimensions of the left ventricle increase, mostly in response to an increase in ventricular filling secondary to an increase in plasma volume and diastolic filling time

Front 17

In-Review

Back 17

Left ventricular wall thickness and mass also increase, allowing for greater contractility

Front 18

Notes: Stroke Volume @ rest

Back 18

Substantially higher after an endurance training program, increases also seen at submaximal intensities

Front 19

Notes: Stroke volume and body size

Back 19

Larger people typically have larger hearts and greater blood volume, thus higher stroke volumes---important point when comparing stroke volumes of different individuals

Front 20

Notes: Plasma Volume

Back 20

Plasma volume expands with training, which allows for more blood to enter the ventricle during diastole, increasing end-diastolic volume(EDV)

Front 21

Notes: Thickness of heart walls

Back 21

Thickness of the posterior and septal walls of the left ventricle also increases slightly; increases muscle mass results in increased contractile force, in turn causing EDV to decrease. More blood if forced out of the heart, leaving less blood in the left ventricle after systole

Front 22

In-Focus

Back 22

Increased left ventricular dimensions, reduced systemic peripheral resistance, and a greater blood volume accout for the increases in resting, submaximal, and maximal stroke volumes after and endurance program

Front 23

In-Review

Back 23

Following endurance training, stroke volume is increases at rest and during submaximal and maximal exercise when compared to pre-training values

Front 24

In-Review

Back 24

A major factor leading to the stroke volume increase is an increased EDV caused by an increase in plasma volume and greater diastolic filling time(lower heart rate)

Front 25

In-Review

Back 25

Another major factor is increased left ventricular force of contraction. This is caused by hypertrophy of the cardiac muscle and increased ventricular stretch resulting from an increase in diastolic filling(increased preload) leading to greater elastic recoil (Frank-Starling mechanism)

Front 26

In-Review

Back 26

Electrocardiograph involves the technique of ultrasound, which utilizes high-frequency sound waves directed through the chest wall to the heart. These sound waves are emitted from a transducer placed on the chest; once they contact the various structures of the heart, they rebound back to senor, which is able to capture the deflected sound waves and provide a moving picture of the heart

Front 27

In-Review

Back 27

Reduced systemic vascular resistance (deceased afterload) also contributes to the increased volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle with each beat

Front 28

Notes: Heart adaptions to endurance training

Back 28

training-induced bradycardia is the natural response to endurance training. A trained heart performs less work(lower heart rate, higher stroke volume) than an untrained heart at the same absolute workload

Front 29

Notes: Heart Rate Recovery

Back 29

HRRP (Heart Rate Recovery Period) is the time it takes for heart rate to return to its resting rate. This happens more rapidly after exercise than does it before training. True after submaximal and maximal exercise as well in a trained heart

The heart rate recovery curve is useful in tracking a person's progress in a program, but should not be used to compare individuals.

Front 30

In-Focus

Back 30

Resting heart rate is typically lower (by more than 10 beats/min) following aerobic endurance training. After endurance training, submaximal heart rates are likewise lower during exercise at the same absolute workload, generally by 10 to 20 beats/min or more.

Maximal heart rates generally do not change with endurance training

Front 31

In-Review

Back 31

Resting heart rate decreases as a result of endurance training. In a sedentary person, the decrease is typically about 1 beat/min per week during the initial weeks of training. Highly trained endurance athletes may have resting heart rates of 40 beats/ min or lower

Front 32

In-Review

Back 32

Heart rate during submaximal exercise is also lower, and the magnitude of decrease is greater at higher exercise intensities

Front 33

In-Review

Back 33

Maximal heart rate either remains unchanged or decreases slightly with training

Front 34

In-Review

Back 34

The heart rate recovery period decreases more rapidly after training, making it an indirect but convenient way of tracking the adaptations that occur with training. However this value is not useful in comparing fitness levels of different people

Front 35

In-Review

Back 35

Cardiac output at rest and at submaximal levels of exercise remains unchanged or decreases slightly after endurance training

Front 36

In-Review

Back 36

Cardiac output at maximal levels of exercise increases considerably and is largely responsible fort the increase in VO2max. The increased maximal cardiac output is the result of the substantial increase in maximal stroke volume, made possible by training-induced changes in cardiac structure and function

Front 37

Notes: Blood flow

Back 37

Increases in capillaries usually is expressed as an increase in the number of capillaries per muscle fiber or capillary-to-fiber ratio

Front 38

Notes: Blood flow

Back 38

Increase in new capillaries with endurance training and increased capillary recruitment combine to increase the cross-sectional area for exchange between the vascular system and the metabolically active muscle fibers. Because endurance training also increases blood volume, shifting more blood into the capillaries will not severely compromise venous return

Front 39

Notes: Blood flow

Back 39

The body's total blood volume increases with endurance training, providing more blood to meet the body's many blood flow needs during activity

Front 40

In-Focus

Back 40

The increase in blood flow to muscle in one of the most important factors supporting increased aerobic endurance capacity and performance. This increase is attributable to improved capillary supply (both new capillaries and greater capillary recruitment), diversion of a larger portion of the cardiac output to the active muscles, and increased blood volume

-Pressure stays about the same; resting heart rate in hypertensive individuals just normalizes

Front 41

In-Focus

Back 41

The increase in blood volume following aerobic endurance training is attributable to increases in both plasma volume and red blood cell volume; both changes facilitate the delivery of oxygen to active muscles

Front 42

In-Review

Back 42

Blood flow to muscles is increased by endurance training

Front 43

In-Review

Back 43

Increased blood flow results from four factors:

-Increased capillarization
-Greater opening of existing capillaries
-More effective blood flow distribution
-Increased blood volume

Front 44

In-Review

Back 44

Resting blood pressure generally is reduced by endurance training in those with borderline or moderate hypertension but not healthy, normotensive exercisers

Front 45

In-Review

Back 45

Endurance training results in a reduction in blood pressure during submaximal exercise at the same exercise intensity, but maximal exercise intensity the systolic blood pressure is increased and diastolic blood pressure is decreased compared to pretraining values

Front 46

In-Review

Back 46

Blood volume increases as result of endurance training

Front 47

In-Review

Back 47

The increase in blood volume initially is caused by increase in plasma volume

Front 48

In-Review

Back 48

Plasma volume is expanded through increased protein content(returned from lymph and unregulated protein synthesis) and supported by fluid conservation hormones

Front 49

In-Review

Back 49

Red blood cell volume also increases, but the increase in plasma volume is typically higher

Front 50

In-Review

Back 50

Increased plasma volume decreases blood viscosity, which can improve circulation and oxygen availability

Front 51

In-Review

Back 51

Hemodilution is an increase in plasma, Blood Cells, and decrease in viscosity.

Faster flow = more O2 to the muscles

Front 52

Notes: Respiratory Adaptations to Training

Back 52

Respiratory systems function doesn't limit performance because ventilation can be increased to a much greater extent than cardiovascular function

Front 53

Notes: Pulmonary Ventilation

Back 53

Maximal pulmonary ventilation is substantially increased from a rate of about 100-120 L/min in untrained sedentary individuals to 130-150 L/min after an endurance program

Front 54

Notes:Pulmonary Ventilation

Back 54

2 factors account for increase in maximal pulmonary ventilation:

1. ^ tidal volume
2. ^ respiratory frequency at maximal exercise(breathing heavier)

Front 55

Notes: Pulmonary Diffusion

Back 55

Gas exchange in the alveoli, is unaltered at rest and at standardized submaximal exercise following training, but increased at maximal exercise.

Front 56

Notes: Pulmonary Diffusion

Back 56

Pulmonary blood flow(blood coming from the heart to the lungs) increases, particularly the flow to upper regions of the lungs when a person is standing or sitting following an endurance program

Front 57

In-focus

Back 57

Although the largest part of the increase in VO2max results from cardiac output and muscle blood flow, an increase in (a-v)O2diff also plays a key role. This is attrib. to a more effective distribution of arterial blood away from inactive tissues to the active tissues and increased ability of active muscles to extract oxygen

Front 58

Notes: Adaptions in Muscle

Back 58

Aerobic training produces changes in:

-Muscle fiber type
-Mitochondrial function
-Oxidative enzymes

Front 59

Notes: Muscle Fiber Type changes in aerobic training

Back 59

Type I fibers develop a larger cross-sectional area

-Change depends on intensity and duration of each training bout, and length of program

Front 60

Notes: Capillary Supply in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 60

Increase in capillary density(i.e., increase in capillaries per muscle fiber) allows the increase in VO2max....diffusion of oxygen from the capillary to the mitochondria facilitates the rate of oxygen consumption. Rate of consumption is a major factor limiting

Front 61

In-Focus

Back 61

Aerobic training increases both the number of capillaries per muscle fiber and the number of capillaries for a given cross-sectional area of muscle. Both changes improve blood profusion through the muscles, thereby enhancing the exchange of gases, wastes, and nutrients between the blood and muscle fibers

Front 62

Notes: Myoglobin Content in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 62

Iron containing compound shuttles the oxygen molecules from cell membrane to the mitochondria. The Type I fibers contain large quantities of myoglobin, which gives these fibers their red appearance ( myoglobin is a pigment that turns red when bound with oxygen) The Type II fibers, conversely are highly glycolytic so they require less myoglobin---hence whiter appearance

Front 63

Notes: Myoglobin Content in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 63

Myoglobin stores oxygen and releases it to the mitochondria when oxygen becomes limited during muscle action

Front 64

Notes: Mitochondrial Function in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 64

The ability to use oxygen and produce ATP via oxidation depends on the size and number of the muscle mitochondria.

Front 65

In-Focus

Back 65

Skeletal muscle mitochondria increase in both number and size with aerobic training, providing the muscle with an increased capacity for oxidative metabolism

Front 66

Notes: Oxidative Enzymes in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 66

-Changes in enzyme activity are further enhanced by an increase in mitochondrial capacity.

-Oxidative breakdown of fuels and production of ATP depend on the action of------Mitochondrial Oxidative Enzymes-----special proteins that catalyze(speed up) the breakdown of nutrients to form ATP.

-Aerobic training increases the activity of these enzymes

Front 67

Notes: Oxidative Enzymes in Aerobic Endurance Training

Back 67

-Succinate Dehydrogenase (SDH) and Citrate Synthase are key muscle oxidative enzyme's that aid in increasing VO2max

-The activities of muscle enzymes are dramatically influenced by aerobic training.

-Even moderate amounts of daily exercise increase these enzyme activities and thus muscles aerobic capacity.

Front 68

Notes: Glycogen Sparing

Back 68

-A metabolic change facilitated by mitochondrial changes induced by aerobic training

-Slower rate of utilization of muscle glycogen and enhanced reliance on fat as a fuel source at a given exercise intensity.

-Increase in the oxidative enzymes with aerobic training improves the ability to sustain a higher exercise intensity, such as maintaining a faster pace in a 10 km run

Front 69

In-Review

Back 69

Aerobic training recruits Type I muscle fibers substantially more than Type II fibers. Consequently, the Type I fibers tend to enlarge with training

Front 70

In-Review

Back 70

There appears to be a small increase in the percentage of Type I fibers and transition of Type IIx fiber to Type IIa fibers

Front 71

In-Review

Back 71

The number of capillaries supplying each muscle fiber increases with training

Front 72

In-Review

Back 72

Aerobic training increases muscle Myoglobin content by about 75%-80%. Myoglobin stores oxygen for later use by active muscles

Front 73

In-Review

Back 73

Aerobic training increases both number and size of muscle fiber mitochondria

Front 74

In-Review

Back 74

Activities of many oxidative enzymes are increased with aerobic training

-Mitochondrial Oxidative
-Succinate Dehydrogenase(SDH)
-Citrate Synthase

Front 75

In-Review

Back 75

Oxidative enzyme changes occurring in the muscles, combined with adaptations in the oxygen transport system, enhance the capacity of oxidative metabolism and improve endurance performance

Front 76

In-Focus

Back 76

An increase in the lactate threshold is a major factor in the improved performance of aerobically trained endurance athletes

Front 77

Notes: 3 Important Physiological Adaptations in Training related to Metabolism

Back 77

-Lactate Threshold

-Respiratory exchange ratio (RER)

-Oxygen consumption

Front 78

Notes: Lactate Threshold Adaptations in Training related to Metabolism

Back 78

-The higher the lactate threshold the better aerobic performance

-Pace in endurance events is closely associated with lactate threshold.

-The reduction in lactate values at a given rate of work is due to a combination of reduced lactate production and increased lactate clearance

Front 79

Notes: Respiratory Exchange Ratio(RER)

Back 79

After training, the RER decreases at both absolute and relative submaximal exercise intensity

Front 80

In-Review

Back 80

Lactate threshold increases with endurance training, allowing performance of higher exercise intensities without significantly increasing blood lactate concentration

Front 81

In-Review

Back 81

With endurance training, the RER decreases at submaximal work rates, indicating greater utilization of free fatty acids as energy substrate

Front 82

In-Review

Back 82

Oxygen consumption generally remains unchanged at rest and decreases slightly or remains unaltered during submaximal exercise following endurance training

Front 83

In-Review

Back 83

-VO2max increases substantially following endurance training, but the amount of increase possible is limited in each individual.

-The major limiting factor appears to be oxygen delivery to the active muscles

Front 84

Notes: Long-Term Improvement of VO2max

Back 84

An individual's highest attainable VO2max is usually achieved with in 12-18 months of intense endurance conditioning

Improvements in endurance performance without VO2max improvement is due to increasingly higher percentages of VO2max for extended periods and better running economy

Front 85

Notes: Factors affecting response to Aerobic Training

Back 85

-Level of Conditioning and VO2max at start of endurance program
-Heredity
-Sex
-High or Low responder

Front 86

Notes: Level of Conditioning

Back 86

The higher the initial state of conditioning, the smaller the relative improvement

Front 87

In-Focus

Back 87

Heredity is a major determinant of aerobic power, accounting for 25%-50% of the variation in VO2max

Front 88

Notes: How Heredity affects response to Aerobic Training

Back 88

Genetic factors establish boundaries for the athlete, but endurance training can push VO2max to the upper limit of these boundaries

Front 89

Notes: Sex in response to VO2max

Back 89

Female athletes have about 10% lower values than men

Front 90

In-Focus

Back 90

Individual differences cause substantial variation in subjects responses to a given training program. Genetics accounts for much of this variation in response

Front 91

Notes: How fatigue affects Cardiorespiratory Endurance and Performance

Back 91

-Muscular strength is deceased
-Reaction and movement times are prolonged
-Agility and neuromuscular coordination are reduced
-Whole-body movement speed is slowed
-Concentration and alertness are reduced

Front 92

In-Review

Back 92

Although VO2max has an upper limit, endurance performance can continue to improve for yrs with continued training

Front 93

In-Review

Back 93

An individuals genetic makeup predetermines a range for his or her VO2max and accounts for 25-50% of the variance in values.

Heredity also explains individuals variations in response to identical training programs

Front 94

In-Review

Back 94

Highly conditioned female athletes have VO2max values 10% lower than those of male athletes

Front 95

In-Review

Back 95

All athletes can benefit from maximizing their cardiorespiratory endurance

Front 96

Notes: Changes in Anaerobic Power and Capacity

Back 96

Wingate anaerobic test is one method used to determine power and capacity

The subject pedals a cycle ergometer at maximal speed of 30 sec against a high breaking force

Breaking force is determined by weight, sex, age, and level of training

Front 97

Notes: Peak Power outputs

Back 97

Peak Power Output is the highest mechanical power achieved at any stage in the test; it is generally achieved during the first 5-10 secs and is considered an index of anaerobic power

Front 98

Notes: Adaptations in Muscle with Anaerobic Training

Back 98

-Types of training include sprint and resistance

-Produces changes in skeletal muscle that specifically reflects muscle fiber recruitment for these types of activities

Front 99

Notes: Adaptations in Muscle with Anaerobic Training

Back 99

-Both Type IIa & Type IIx muscle fibers undergo an increase in their cross-sectional area

-Type I fibers also seeing an increase but to a much lesser extent

-Greatest change is in Type IIa fibers

Front 100

Notes: Adaptations in the ATP-PCr System from Anaerobic Training

Back 100

The activities of anaerobic enzymes Creatine Kinase and Myokinase increased as a result of 30 sec training bouts, but were unchanged in bouts lasting only 6 sec maximal effort

Front 101

Notes: Adaptations in the Glycolytic System from Anaerobic Training

Back 101

The most frequently studied glycolytic enzymes are:
-Phosphorylase
-Phosphofructokinase (PFK)

-Essential to anaerobic yield of ATP

Front 102

In-Focus

Back 102

-Anaerobic Training increases the ATP-PCr and Glycolytic enzymes but has not effect on the Oxidative enzymes.

-Key theme: Physiologic alterations that result from training are highly specific to the type of training

Front 103

In-Review

Back 103

Anaerobic training bouts improve both anaerobic power and capacity

Front 104

In-Review

Back 104

The performance improvement noted with sprint-type anaerobic training appears to result more from strength gains than from improvements in the functioning of the anaerobic energy systems

Front 105

In-Review

Back 105

Anaerobic training increases the ATP-PCr and Glycolytic enzymes but has not effect on the Oxidative enzymes

Front 106

Notes: Specificity of Training

Back 106

Cross-training refers to training for several fitness components at same time. (such as endurance, strength, and flexibility)

Front 107

Notes: Muscle Enzymes for each energy system

Back 107

Aerobic/Oxidative System:
-Succinate Dehydrogenase(SDH)
-Malate Dehydrogenase

ATP-PCr System:
-Creatine kinase
-Myokinase

Glycolytic System:
-Phosphorylase
-PFK
-Lactate Dehydogenase

Front 108

In-Review

Back 108

For athletes to maximize cardiorespiratory gains form training, the training should be specific to the type of activity that an athlete usually performs

Front 109

In-Review

Back 109

Resistance training in combination with endurance training does not appear to restrict improvements in aerobic power and may increase short-term endurance, but can limit improvements in strength and power when compared with gains for resistance training alone