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171 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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function of sensory systems
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translate the message, identify its components, & produce stbale interpretations
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visible light
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one part of the spectrum of all electromagnetic energy
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3 main properties of visible light
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wavelength(color),intensity(brightness),& purity
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laws of visual organization: Gestalt Principles
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proximity,similarity,closure, good continuation,& common fate
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monocular
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require input from only one eye
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binocular
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depend on both eyes
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3 main properties of sensation
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wavelength(color), intensity(brightness), & purity
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path of translating the message
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enters the eye throught the cornea,pupil,lens
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fovea
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center of the retina
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rods
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sensitive to low light
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cones
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sensitive to fine detail; responsible for color vision, concentrated in the fovea,& named for their shape
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facts about ganglion cells
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input is received from a # of other cells,responds only to a particular pattern,& receptive field triggers the firing of the cell
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visual cortex
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occipital lobe that processes vision
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3 types of cones in retina
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blue,green,& red
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result of colorblindness
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having wrong kind of photopigment in cones
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fact about perception
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perception depends on context, expectations as well as sensory messages
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proximity
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elements that are close to each other seen as being apart of the same object
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similarity
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items sharing physical properties are put into the same set
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closure
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figures with gaps or small missing parts of the border are seen as complete
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good continuation
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lines that are interrupted are seen as continously flowing
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common fate (common direction)
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things moving in the same direction are seen as a group
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motion perception
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sometimes perceived when there isnt any
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cues
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special set of neurons that respond to movement
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size constancy
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depends on the distance which allows us to see images as larger or smaller depending on if they're closer or farther away
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factors of size constancy
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retinal image, perceived size, & perceived distance
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perceptual illusions
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inappropriate interpretations of physical reality
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sound
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mechanical energy requiring a medium such as air or water to move; measure in decibels(dB)
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frequency
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how fast a stimulus vibrates
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amplitude
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intensity of vibration (high or low)
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outer ear
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sound funnels toward eardrum
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middle ear
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bones vibrate
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inner ear
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vibrations sent to cochlea, hair cells on basiliar membrane(respond to specific frequencies)
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auditory nerve
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transmits messages from the hair cells to the auditory cortex
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Place Theory
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pitch determined by where hair cells are on the basiliar;high frequency=high pitch,low frequency=low pitch
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Frequency Theory
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pitch determined PARTLY by frequency of impulses coming from hair cells
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cells in auditory cortex
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respond to paricular combinations of sounds
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localizing sounds
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messages between two ears depends on time of arrival & intensity
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touch receptor cells
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(in skin) send messages to somotasensory cortex(parietal lobe)
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adaptive reaction
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stimuli intense enough to cause tissue damage
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Gate-control Theory
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impulses from pain receptors can be blocked by the SPINAL CORD i.e. relaxation, meditation,etc.
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semicircular canals, vestibular sacs
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tells the brain that motion is occurring
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chemical senses
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smell (olfaction) & taste (gustation)
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chemoreceptors
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sensory nerve(smell & taste)
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smell
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receptor cells in upper part of nasal cavity send messages to olfactory bulb
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taste
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receptor cells on tongue respond to sweet,bitter,salty,
& sour tastes; allows flavor to be tasted;somatosensory cortex |
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pheromones
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chemicals that cause highly specific reactions when detected by other members of the species
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absolute threshold
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intensity level @ which people detect the stimulus 50% of the time
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signal detection technique
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used to determine detection ability & biases;compares hits to false alarms,correct rejections to misses
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Difference Thresholds
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small or drastic changes for you to notice it i.e. intensity of sound,a light's brightness
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Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
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depends on how intense the stimuli are overall i.e. big stimulus=big JND needed
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Weber's Law
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ability to notice a difference in 2 stimuli is a constant proportion of the size of the standard stimulus
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sensory adaptation
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tendency of sensory systems to reduce sensitivity to a stimulus source that remains constant
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psychophysics
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looks at ways to decribe from the physical to the psychological in terms of mathematical laws
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attention
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internal processes used to set priorities for mental functioning
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selective attention
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reflects limitations on how much the brain can process at one time
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fact about attention
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prioritizing is adaptive; focusing on most relevant information
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Dichotic Listening
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technique where different messages are presented simultaneously to each ear; cant focus on both
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unattended message
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little is remembered but some processing does occur
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Cocktail party effect
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when your name is said in your unconscious ear but you respond
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Automaticity
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fast & effortless processing that requires little or no focused attention
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Disorders of Attention:Visual Neglect
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tendency to ignore things on one side of the body(usually the left); some info from neglected side does get through
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Disorders of Attention: Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
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disorder marked by difficulties in concentrating, sustaining attention for extended periods sometimes associated w/hyperactivity
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biological clocks
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structures that control biological rhythms; synchronizes w/society through eyes;LIGHT is important
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how EEG recordings are collected
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electrodes pasted to scalp,changesin electrical potentials of brain cells recorded in the form of line tracings;called brain waves
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fact about EEGs
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reveal regular,cyclic changes in brain activity during sleep
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stage 1 of sleep
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theta waves appear,light sleep
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stage 2 of sleep
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person asleep but may respond to noises
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stage 3 & 4 of sleep
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delta activity,deep sleep; nonresponsive to most stimuli & slow to awake
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REM Sleep
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changes in physiological pattern i.e. increased heart rate,darting eyes,twitching; dreaming occurs
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EEG of REM sleep
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resembles waking state
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Sleep Cycle
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goes thru cycle 4-5 times in order;90 minutes per cycle; REM dominates later stages
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hypotheses of function of sleep:repairing/restoring
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"down time": helps repair normal wear & tear on body & brain
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hypotheses of function of sleep:survival/value
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stops us from going out when low lights puts us at risk for predators
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Function of REM sleep
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wish fulfillment
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insomnia
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difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep
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hypersomnia
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chronic excessive sleepiness
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narcolepsy
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sudeen extreme sleepiness
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psychoactive drugs
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drugs that affect behavior & mental processes through alterations of conscious awareness
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result of repeated use of psychoactive drugs
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tolerance & drug dependency
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psychoactive drugs:depressants
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slow the activity of the CNS i.e. alcohol
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psychoactive drugs:stimulants
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increase activity of the CNS i.e. caffeine, nicotine
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psychoactive drugs:opiates
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depress CNS activity,reduce pain & produce euphoria
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psychoactive drugs: hallucinogens
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affect perception, distort idea of reality
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factors that influence the effect of psychoactive drugs
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setting,past experience w/the drug,user's physical, psychological state
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EEG of hypnosis
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displays a relaxed individual
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hypnosis
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deep state of relaxation(can respond,talk,& hear); vulnerable state of relaxation
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effects of hypnosis
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repond to commands in ways that seem involuntary & pain management
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hypnotic dissociations
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consciousness splits into multiple forms of awareness
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social role playing
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hypnotized person conforms to what they expect will happen
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meditation
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technique for self induced manipulation of awareness, often used for relaxation & self awareness
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meditation effects
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can produce physiological changes i.e. lowered blood pressure & some beneficial psychological effects
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habituation
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decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated presentation
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sensitization
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increased responding to an event that has been repeated
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unconditioned stimulus (US)
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a stimulus that automatically leads to a response PRIOR to training (food)
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unconditioned response (UR)
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response thats produced automatically,prior to training,on presentation of US (salivation)
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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neutral stimulus thats paired w/ the US during classical conditioning (feeder's footsteps)
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conditioned response (CR)
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the learned response produced by the conditioned stimulus (dog salivating (CR) when hearing the feeder's footsteps (CS)
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CS-US Connection
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CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur;CS must come BEFORE the US
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second order conditioning
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procedure in which an established CS is used to condition a second neutral stimulus
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stimulus generalization
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responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to an established CS
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extinction
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presenting a CS repeatedly, after conditioning,w/o the US, resulting in a loss in responding
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spontaneuos recovery
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recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS
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conditioned inhibition
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learning that an event signals the absence of the US
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conditioned inhibitors
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can serve as safety signals when US is something dangerous
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operant conditioning
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procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary action
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Law of effect
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if a response is followed by a satisfying consequence, it'll be strengthened;if followed by an unsatisying consequence,it'll be weakened
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discriminative stimulus
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stimulus situation in which a response will be followed by reward or punishment
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positive reinforcement
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usually involves an appetitive stimulus event that,when PRESENTED after a response,increases likelihood of that response occurring again
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negative reinforcement
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response leads to removal of some stimulus;event that,when REMOVED after a response,increases likelihood of that response
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response deprivation
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event is reinforcing if it allows you to engage in something that you're deprived of
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punishment
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consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again;may also increase aggression
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practical consideration
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does effectively suppress behavior;may also increase aggression
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limitation
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doesnt promote better, alternative response
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continuous reinforcement
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every response followed rapidly by reinforcement
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partial reinforcement
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reinforcement delivered only some of the time
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fixed ratio
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# of responses required for reinforcement doesnt change; tend to produce steady; extinction when reinforcement no longer given
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variable ratio
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a certain # of responses required for reinforcement, but this #;extinction takes much longer
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fixed interval
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reinforcement delivered for first response after a fixed interval of time
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scalloping pattern
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low rates responding early but increase over time
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variable interval
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time until reinforcement changes
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problem w/shaping
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complex behaviors unlikely to occur spontaneously, so they're hard to reinforce
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solution for shaping
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a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
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innate tendencies
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can limit or enhance learning
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observational learning
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occurs as a result of observing the experience
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modeling
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natural tendency to imitate behavior of significant others
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modeling is strongest when
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model is viewed positively, model is rewarded for the behavior
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memory
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capacity to preserve & recover info
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basic important processes of memory
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encoding(how memories are formed),storage(how memories are kept over time),retrieval(how memories are recovered & translated into performance)
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sensory memory
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exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for a second or less;registers amazing detail
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iconic memory
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vision
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echoic memory
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audition
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fact about sensory memory
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provides additional processing time after stimulus has ended
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short term memory (working memory)
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a system we use to temporarily store, think about,reason w/info;few items are both encoded & noticed
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inner voice
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we tend to recode (translate) info into inner speech
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inner eye
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we can also code information visually,using images
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short term forgetting
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without rehearsal, memories disappear after 1-2 seconds
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memory span
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# of items that can be recalled from short term memory,in order,on half of the tested memory trials;its about 7 plus or minus 2 items
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short term depends on
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how quickly items can be rehearsed, chunking
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working memory model: phonological loop
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like the inner voice;stores word sounds
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working memory model: visuospatial sketchpad
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stores visual & spatial information
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working memory model: central executive
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determines which mechanism to use,coordinates among them
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episodic memory
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memory of a particular event or episode that happened to you personally
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semantic memory
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knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little/no reference to no one's personal experiences
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procedural memory
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knowledge about how to do things
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elaboration
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an encoding process that involves forming connections between to be remembered input & other information in memory
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fact about elaboration
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helps you retrieve the information later
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ways to promote elaboration
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think about meaning,notice relationships,& notice differences
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flashbulb memories
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rich records of the circumstances surrounding emotionally signficant & suprising events
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ways to achieve elaboration
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form mental pics,space repetitions,& consider sequence position
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generation effect
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interaction (fill in blanks)
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repetition
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more effective when spaced out
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mnemonic techniques
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mental tricks that help people think about material in ways that improve memory
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method of loci
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choose a familiar pathway, then form visual images of to be remembered items sitting along the pathway
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peg word method
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form visual images connecting to be remembered items w/retrieval cues
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free recall
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remember information w/o explicit retrieval cues
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cued recall
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remember based on a cue
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importance of retrieval cues
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cued recall produces substantially better performance,cues play a critical role in recall
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encoding retrieval match
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better memeory when cue matches the memory that was encoded
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transfer appropriate processing
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using the same kinds of mental processes during study & testing improves memory
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reconstructive remembering
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we tend to fill in parts of our memories based on past experience, expectations
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schemas
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organized knowledge structure in long term memory
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implicit memory
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remembering that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness or willful intent
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how quickly we forget depends on
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how it was initially encoded,whether it was encountered again later,kinds of retrieval cues present at time of remembering
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why is forgetting adaptive
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must update memory, discriminate one occurrence from another
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decay
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idea that memories fade w/time
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retroactive interference
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formation of new memories hurts retention of old memories
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proactive interference
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old memories interfere w/the establishment & recovery of new memories
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evidence for repression
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we tend to recall more pleasant than unpleasant things
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amnesia
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forgetting caused by physical problems in the brain
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retrograde amnesia
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affects events that happened prior to the point of injury
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anterograde amnesia
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affects events that happened after the point of injury
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