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48 Cards in this Set

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What are the 2 main reasons air pollution has become such a serious problem worldwide?
-There has been an enormous increase in world population (especially in urban areas).
-The rapid growth of energy-intensive industries and rising levels of affluence since the early 1800s, which has led to record levels of fossil fuel combustion.
pg 391
What are some sources of air pollution?
-Contaminants of natural origin (volcanic eruptions, forest fires, dust storms).
-Methane gas (released when organic matter decays in the absence of oxygen, and from some plant species).
pg 392
What are the largest sources of air pollution in the industrialized world.
-Transportation
-Electric power plants that burn coal or oil
-Industry
-Heating homes/buildings
-Burning refuse
-Automobiles (the largest contributor in most metropolitan areas)
pg 392
What are criteria pollutants?
-The 6 most common & widespread air pollutants.
-The EPA is required to gather scientific & medical information on the environmental & human health effects of them.
-NAAQS have been set for them.
pg 393
What does NAAQS stand for and what are they?
-National Ambient Air Quality Standards
-Specify the maximum levels of concentration of these pollutants allowable in the outdoor air.
pg 393
Discuss particulate matter: definition, problems caused, sources, examples.
-Is one of the criteria pollutants.
-All airborne pollutants that occur in either liquid or solid form.
-They remain suspended in the air and are transported on wind currents.
-Can create clouds of dust, smoke, and soot.
-Generated by fuel combustion, road traffic, agricultural activities, certain industrial processes, and natural abrasion.
-Can deposit a layer of grime on buildings, streets, clothing, etc., obscure visibility and corrode metals, and irritate the respiratory tract (especially tiny ones that penetrate deeply in the lungs).
-Includes pollen, dust, soot, smoke, acid condensates, and sulfate and nitrate particles.
pgs 393-394
Discuss sulfur dioxide: problems caused & sources.
-The major source is fuel combustion.
-They irritate the respiratory system, corrode metals, harm textiles, impair visibility, kill or stunt the growth of plants, and are a precursor to acid rain.
pg 394
Discuss carbon monoxide: problems caused & sources.
-The biggest source is automobile emissions, another source is cigarette smoke
-Depending on the concentration of CO in the air and the length of exposure, inhalation of carbon monoxide can result in adverse health effects ranging from mild headaches to death.
pg 396
Discuss nitrogen oxides: definition, problems caused & sources.
-Sources include combustion, auto emissions, and power plants.
-Creates a yellow-brown "smoggy" appearance.
-Contributes to shortness of breath, coughing, enhanced risk of respiratory disease, stunts plant growth, visibly damages leaves of plants, reduces visibility, and contributes to acid rain.
pgs 396-397
Discuss ozone: problems caused & sources.
-Is a photochemical oxidants, which form from reactions with nitrogen dioxide and VOCs (from auto exhausts and others) react with oxygen and sunlight.
-It irritates the mucous membranes of the respiratory system, cracks rubber, deteriorates fabrics, causes paint to fade, irritates eyes, and severely impacts plant growth.
-It's one of the most troublesome pollutants in terms of number of people affected.
pgs 397, 415
Discuss lead: problems caused & sources.
-Has an adverse impact on the intellectual development of children.
-Airborne lead is mostly from automobiles.
pg 397
Discuss the "Brown Cloud" over south & southeast Asia: what is it, where is it, what are some consequences, what are barriers to fixing it?
-It's a 2-mile thick haze that hovers over cities & countryside, but affects lands thousands of miles away as well.
-Is made worse by an inversion layer.
-Areas beneath the cloud may see a reduction in the frequency of rainfall.
-Is causing rising incidence of respiratory diseases and asthma, premature deaths, acid rain, and reducing agricultural productivity.
-The people that live in the area are unable to afford cleaner fuels, so it's hard to convince them to eat uncooked food or shiver in the cold to forestall adverse weather conditions in the future.
pgs 395-396
What is the Emergency Planning & Community Right-to-Know Act?
What is one positive outcome of it?
Created in 1986 to require that manufacturers disclose information on the kinds and amounts of toxic pollutants they discharge into the local environment each year.
The necessity of revealing data that might alarm previously complacent local residents prompted voluntary emissions reductions.
pg 398
What is inversion?
A condition where a layer of cool surface air is trapped by an overlying layer of warmer air.
pg 399
What is something difficult about connecting air pollution and health connection?
Air contains so many different pollutants, determining with certainty which pollutant at what level is causing an observed health effect has been problematic.
pg 400
Where is air pollution worse: industrialized or developing countries? Why?
Developing countries
Soaring levels of urbanization, rapid industrialization, proliferation of motor vehicles, and lack of effective pollution control programs.
pg 400
What health problems does air pollution cause?
They are mostly respiratory, primarily cardiovascular or respiratory disease.
pg 400
Which air pollutants cause the worst health problems?
The most serious ones are from very fine particles, and from sulfate particles.
pgs 400-401
What are some of the ways air pollutants can induce illness?
-By inhibiting or inactivating the natural body defenses (ex: destroying the action of the cilia lining)
-Causing constriction of the airways
-Inducing fibrosis and thickening of alveolar walls.
pgs 401-402.
What is one factor that contributes to the recognition that the federal government should have authority over air pollution?
Why is this important?
The problems of air pollution are so immense, diverse, and complex that environmental improvement could be achieved only through intergovernmental cooperation at all levels.
-Air pollutants drift over local & state boundaries.
-Threats by polluting industries to leave a particular state & relocate in a more lenient regulatory environment.
pgs 403-404
What was the significance of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970?
What are the most significant parts of the act?
-It provided the first comprehensive program for attacking air pollution on an effective nationwide basis.
-NAAQS
-Emission Limitations for New Stationary Sources of Pollution
-Strict Emission Standards for Automobiles
-Regulation of Hazardous Air Pollutants through Technology-Based Controls
-Acid Deposition Controls
pgs 403-410
-Discuss the NAAQS part of the Clean Air Act?
-What is the difference between primary & secondary standards?
-What are nonattainment areas?
-The Clean Air Act differs from other environmental laws in that it requires that primary standards be set solely on the basis of protecting health, without regard for the costs of pollution control.
-Primary standards are intended to safeguard human health.
-Secondary standards promote human welfare by protecting agricultural crops, livestock, property, and the environment in general.
-Nonattainment areas fail to bring their pollution levels into conformance with the NAAQS.
pg 404
Discuss the emission limitations for new stationary sources of pollution part of the Clean Air Act?
The intent is to establish NSPS (new source performance standards) for factories and power plants by ensuring that pollution controls are built in when factories and plants are newly constructed or substantially modified.
pg 404
Discuss the strict emission standards for automobiles part of the Clean Air Act?
-All nonattainment areas in the US must have auto I/M (inspection & maintenance) programs to detect vehicles whose emissions control systems are malfunctioning and require that they be repaired.
-I/M programs are one of the most effective and least costly means of combating urban smog, short of prohibiting driving.
-Service stations must install vapor recovery systems on gasoline pumps to capture hydrocarbons that would otherwise be released during refueling.
-Reductions in sulfur content of diesel fuels & lead in regular fuel.
-In the future, there may be "zero emissions vehicles."
pgs 405, 407, 409
Discuss the regulation of hazardous air pollutants through technology-based controls part of the Clean Air Act?
-MACT (maximum achievable control technology) standards for each industrial emitter to be developed.
-The MACT standards take the form of a specified percent reduction in emissions or a concentration limit that regulated sources must achieve, but they pertain to stationary sources.
pg 409
Who is responsible for implementing and enforcing the federal mandates?
The environmental agencies of state governments, which must develop state implementation plans (SIPs).
pg 410
What does SIPs do?
-List all the pollution sources within the state, estimating the quantities of each pollutant emitted annually.
-They issue operating permits for stationary sources.
Issue timetables for compliance.
-Must include some kind of transportation control strategy for dealing with auto-related pollutants in areas of heavy traffic.
pg 410
What is reformulated gasoline (RF)?
What are some concerns with using it?
It has lower levels of certain compounds that contribute to air pollution, and it doesn't evaporate as easily.
-Threat to groundwater supplies.
-May lower gas mileage.
-Costs a few cents more per gallon.
pgs 407-408
Discuss global air pollution.
-Little routine monitoring has been conducted in developing nations.
-Some experts fear that air pollution may take a heavier toll on public health in developing nations because a high percentage of citizens live in poverty and suffer from malnutrition, and there are a lot of young, vulnerable people.
-In most developing countries, the number of cars on the road is increasing exponentially & they're poorly maintained.
pg 411
Discuss health concerns aboard aircrafts.
-Occupants are in extremely close proximity to one another and are unable to leave if they want to.
-To prevent problems and maintain acceptable cabin air quality, airplanes use environmental control system (ECS), designed to control cabin pressure, ventilation, temperature, and humidity, and to prevent entry of harmful airborne contaminants into the cabin.
-At high altitudes when outside air is drawn into the ventilation system, ozone can be present. Newer airplanes have converters, but older ones may not. Converters may lose efficiency over time.
-Some countries use disinsection: spraying insecticides prior to passengers leaving the plane.
-Studies show no difference between airlines that use recirculated air, the biggest risk is sitting next to someone who is sick.
pgs 412-413
What are some forms of acid deposition and where is it happening? What defines it?
Rain, snow, fog, dry SO2 and NO2 gas, and sulfate and nitrate aerosols. It affects North America, Europe, and Asia (still a growing threat) the most.
A pH measuring less than 5.0.
pgs 415-416
How does acid precipitation form?
When sulfur dioxide (mostly from coal- and oil-burning plants) and nitrogen dioxide (mostly from auto emissions, power plants, and industry) are chemically converted to sulfuric or nitric acid.
pg 417
What is long-distance transport?
Some pollutants can remain in the air for a relatively long period of time and can be carried by winds across geographical and political boundaries far from the place of origin.
pg 418
What is the problem with tall stacks as a method to reduce local air pollution?
The superstacks discharge pollutant gases into the persistent air currents more than 500 feet above ground. It reduces local pollution levels but promotes long-distance transport, increasing the range and severity of acid deposition.
pg 418
An ecosystem's sensitivity to acid precipitation is determined by what? Explain the term.
Its buffering capacity, which is the chemical composition of the soil and bedrock.
pgs 418-419
What are some of the adverse environmental changes brought on by acid rain?
-Damage to aquatic ecosystems by decimating biotic communities in lakes and ponds (kills certain species, causes reproductive failure in fish).
-Mobilization of toxic metals when contact with acidified water causes tightly bound toxic metals to dissolve sediments or soils and leach into the aquatic environment, which then bioaccumulate in fish and contaminate drinking water supplies.
-Deterioration of buildings, statuary, and metals.
-Reduction of crop yields (note: some plants are diminished, some stimulated, others show no change).
-Damage to forest productivity by killing plants, reducing stress tolerance, and reducing soil calcium deficiencies.
pgs 419-422
What is shock loading or episodic acidification?
When the annual snow melt happens, several months' accumulation of acid suddenly inundates the spawning areas in lakes and ponds in one massive dose.
pg 419
What is allowance trading? What is so good about it?
The EPA sets enforceable limits on the amount of sulfur dioxide that power plants can emit each year and has assigned each plant a designated number of emission "allowances," specified in the plant's operating permit. A plant's annual emissions cannot exceed the allowances allocated to it for that calendar year, UNLESS the utility purchases surplus allowances at market rates from another plant whose emissions were below the designated limit.
It encourages polluting facilities to reduce emissions to below the legal limit so that they can accumulate unused emission allowances that can be traded with another power plant.
Note: it's been so successful that it's been expanded to include market-based efforts to reduce NO2 and mercury.
pgs 423-424
Why is indoor air pollution a big health threat?
-The majority of people spend most of their time indoors, so their exposure to indoor air pollutants is nearly continuous.
-Studies demonstrate that personal exposures and concentrations of indoor air pollutants exceed those occurring outdoors for all of the 15 most prevalent chemicals.
pg 425
What is the biggest factor in the risk of harm of air pollutants?
The dose received by the individual.
pg 425
Discuss the indoor air pollutant radon gas.
-It originates from the natural radioactive decay of uranium.
-It comes into buildings through cracks sump holes, or when water is used.
-It is a gas and is radioactive.
-It dilutes to harmless amounts in open air, but can accumulate to hazardous levels in confined spaces.
-It's the 2nd leading cause of lung cancer in the US.
-Remediation efforts include covering sump holes, improving ventilation, installing fans, sealing cracks with impermeable materials.
-The action level is 4 pCi/L
-Basements are likely to be highest in radon levels, and levels will be highest in winter.
pgs 426, 428, 430
Discuss the indoor air pollutants that are products of combustion.
-Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulates can reach very high levels in homes where gas stoves or other gas appliances are used, where kerosene heaters or wood-burning stoves are operating, where auto emissions from a garage can enter the house, or where there are cigarette smokers.
-Wood smoke contains approximately 100 different chemicals, 14 of which are the same carcinogens found in cigarette smoke.
-ETS ("environmental tobacco smoke," the by-product of cigarette smoking) may constitute the most significant source of indoor air pollution.
pg 428
Discuss the indoor air pollutant formaldehyde.
-Known to cause skin & respiratory irritation, may be a carcinogen.
-Comes from particleboard, plywood, floor coverings, and textiles.
-Levels can fluctuate - increase with temperature and humidity.
-Reduce exposure by substituting metal or lumber products for those containing pressed wood, launder permanent-press fabrics prior to using them to remove the formaldehyde finish.
pg 431
Discuss the indoor air pollutant of chemical fumes and particles.
-Active ingredients in mothballs and air fresheners may present the highest cancer risk among indoor organic chemicals.
-Chemicals from dry-cleaning.
-Pesticide
-Chemicals that break down quickly outdoors in the presence of sunlight and bacteria can persist for years in carpets.
pgs 431, 434
Discuss fuel concerns in the third world.
What is something that can help this problem?
-In over 100 countries, firewood, crop residues, or coal constitute the main domestic fuel source.
-The task of cooking is undermining the health of millions of women and their children, causing acute respiratory infections, chronic lung diseases, cancer, and reproductive problems.
Many newer models that use a flue or chimney to remove smoke from the house have succeeded in substantially reducing pollutants as well.
pgs 432-433
Discuss the indoor air pollutant of biological pollutants.
-Many allergies are associated with exposure to household dust that may contain fungal spores, bacteria, animal dander, and feces of roaches or mites.
-Growth of the toxin-producing mold.
-Need to inspect areas that aren't readily visible - places where there are leaks, condensation, or sustained flooding would occur.
-Spores can be sucked up by the furnace fan and spread throughout a dwelling.
pgs 434-435
What are building related illnesses (BRI)?
-Symptoms include chest tightness, muscle aches, cough, fever, and chills, and persist for an extended time period, even after people leave the building.
pg 436
What is sick building syndrome?
-Symptoms include forms of acute discomfort - eye irritation, scratchiness in the throat, dry cough, headache, itchy skin, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, nausea and dizziness, but no causative agent can be found.
-Symptoms vanish after people leave the building.
-Some outbreaks are traced to specific pollutants (VOCs from new carpeting, exhauts entering takes, microorganisms, synthetic mineral fibers from ceiling tile and insulating material), usually traced to inadequate ventilation.
pg 436