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200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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chemical formula for glucose
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c6h12o6
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how are polymers formed?
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via dehydration synthesis (aka condensation)
H of one monomer is bonded with the OH of another molecule Product: water and a covalent bond |
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what facilitates the process of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis?
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enzymes
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explain hydrolysis
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a polymer is broken apart and using water, it forms 2 monomers
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carbohydrates are?
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sugars and polymers of sugars
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monosaccharide
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single sugar
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two classes of monosaccharide
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aldose (aldehyde)
ketose (ketone) |
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What are ways that sugars are classified?
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# of C, Location of C doulble bond O group, Arrangement of parts about C
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disaccharides are formed by what kind of bond? how does it occur?
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glycosidic linkage
Monosaccharides undergoing dehydration synthesis to form a covalent bond Water is given off |
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Polysaccharide
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polymers of monosaccharides
formed by glycosidic linkages |
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Function of polysaccharides
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energy storage
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Give two examples of storage polysaccharides
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Starch-used in plants and is a polymer of glucose
Glycogen- used in animals and is a polymer of glucose |
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What are the two forms of starch?
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Amylose (1-4 link) and Amylopectin (1-6 link)
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Give two examples of structural polysaccharides
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Cellulose (1-4 link)
Chitin (has nitrogen appendage) |
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What is the difference between cellulose and starch?
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Both have 1-4 carbon links but cellulose is beta glucose and starch is alpha glucose
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alpha glucose
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OH down
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beta glucose
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OH up
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polynucleotide is synonymous with
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nucleic acid
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what are the two types of nucleic acids?
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DNA and RNA
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what is the function of polynucleotides?
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Store and transmit hereditary information
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What are the 3 components of a nucleotide?
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1. phosphate group
2. sugar (pentose) 3. nitrogenous base |
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what is the difference in structure between DNA and RNA
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the sugar
sugar in DNA is deoxyribose which is a ribose w/o an O on the #2 carbon RNA has ribose |
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Two "families" of nitrogenous bases
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pyrimidines and purines
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pyrimidines
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C, T, U
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purines
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A, G
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What is the name of the covalent bond that links nucleotides?
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phosphodiester bond
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C binds to
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G
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A binds to
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T
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Form of the sugar phosphate backbone
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5' to 3'
5' end has the phosphate group 3' end has the OH group |
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What is a key difference in shape between RNA and DNA
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RNA is single stranded
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What is a polypeptide and how does it relate to a protein?
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a polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids. A protein is one or more polypeptides that are folded into a 3-d structure
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Four things that all amino acids share in common
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amino group (NH2)
carboxyl group (COOH) H terminal C with a variable group R |
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What are the 3 groups for amino acids
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nonpolar
polar charged |
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3 things that determine how amino acids are grouped
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size, behavior in water, charge of side chain (r group)
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What is the name of the covalent bond that is formed between amino acids?
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peptide bond
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Direction of polypeptides
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move from the N end to the C end
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4 levels of protein structure
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1.Primary – amino acid sequence
2.Secondary – backbone interactions 3.Tertiary – R group interactions 4.Quaternary 2 or more polypeptides |
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Primary structure
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protein's amino acid sequence
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secondary structure
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alpha helix or beta pleated
result of H bonds between N and O in the backbone |
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tertiary structure
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interactions between R groups form the overall shape of the protein
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quaternary structure
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results from the aggregation of polypeptides
not all proteins do this |
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one thing that all lipids have in common
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they are hydrophobic
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what is the function of fats
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energy storage, insulator, protection
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structure of a fatty acid
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long chain of carbon w/ one non-polar end and a carboxyl group on the other
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What is the name of the bond when fats are formed and how is it formed?
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ester linkage
bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group |
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How is a fat formed
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3 fatty acids link with hydroxyl groups of a glycerol
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Saturated fatty acid
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no double bonds, every C bond has a H
solid at room temp butter |
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unsaturated fatty acid
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has double bond, not saturated w/ H
healthier oil |
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phospholipids: explain their structure and why they are so essential
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they make up most of our membranes
have a polar head and nonpolar tail |
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What is a steroid and how is it shaped?
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It is a lipid
C skeleton fused with 4 rings |
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Organelles
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tiny organs with specialized function that are bounded by membranes
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cytoplasm
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region between the nucelus and the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell
includes cytosol and organelles |
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cytosol
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internal fluid of the cell that supports organelles
filled with ions and salts |
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3 components of the cytoskeleton
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Microfiliaments
Intermediate filaments Microtubules |
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what is the function of the nucleus?
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brains of the cell where most of the DNA is kept`
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What is the structure of the nucleus?
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nuclear envelope
nuclear lamina chromosomes and chromatin |
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What function does the pore on the nuclear envelope play?
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It allows for the entry and exit of proteins, RNA, and macromolecules.
In particular, it lets out mRNA, which are coded with DNA instructions. Once in the cytoplasm, ribosomes will read them, and translate them into proteins |
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nuclear lamina
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a net of proteins that help shape the nucleus and provide support for the envelope
these are usually intermediate filaments that are based by the protein keratin |
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chromatin
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a complex of proteins and DNA that make up chromosomes
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chromosomes
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are structures that carry genetic information
vary in # from species to species |
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Ribosomes and their two types
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make proteins
free-chill in the cytosol and make proteins that remain in the cytosol bound- on the ER or nuclear envelope and make proteins that are to be secreted |
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Is the plasma membrane part of the endomembrane system?
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Yes, because vesicles will connect to it to dump off proteins
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lumen
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cavity of the ER
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Function of Smooth ER and give examples of its function
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helps with metabolic processes
Sex hormones steroids Adrenal gland steroids Detox in the liver Stores Ca ion to assist in muscle contraction |
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Function the Rough ER
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protein synthesis and distribution
ribosomes dump proteins ER adds sugars to create glycoproteins ER separates out based on destination and are moved by transport vesicles |
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Golgi apparatus function and process
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shipping and modification of proteins
cis-enter +/- carbohydrates trans-leave also makes polysaccharides |
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cytoskeleton functions
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shape
cell motility anchor for organelles trackes the movement of cell parts |
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cytoskeleton and cell nutrient transport
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motor proteins will hold cargo and walk up and down parts of the cytoskeleton
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microtubules: function, structure, protein subunit
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Function: cell shape, cell motility, organelle and chromosome movement
Structure: tube Protein: alpha and beta tubulin |
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Rank the size of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
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microtubules (large)
intermediate filaments microfilaments (smallest) |
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centrosome
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microtubule organizing cent er in the cell that is used in replication
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centrioles
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are where microtubules will attach
the centrosome contains 2 centrioles each centriole contains 9 triplet microtubules |
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microtubules and cell motility
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found in cilia (short and many) flagella (singular w/ wave like motion)
9 + 2 arrangement forming a wagon wheel w/ assist of proteins--function is to keep it rigid |
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basal body
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anchors flagella/cilia
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explain the movement of cilia/flagella
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dyenin proteins are between doublet microtubules
ATP gives energy that causes a walking motion, moving up the tube cross linking of proteins causing a bending motion and doesn't allow the proteins to walk too far |
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Microfilaments: function, structure, protein subunit
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Function: change in cell shape, muscle contraction, streaming and pseudopodia movement
Structure: two intertwined strands Protein: Actin |
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cisternal maturation model
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processing of proteins in the golgi from the cis to the trans face
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microfilaments in relation to pseudopodia
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provide support during movement
gel-actin in the outer cytoplasm sol -actin in the inner cytoplasm actin will interact with myosin and squeeze the interior which will move the cytoplasm |
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microfilaments in relation to cytoplasmic streaming
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actin filaments that are parallel act as a "carpet" for cycling cytoplasm
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microfilaments and muscle movement
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myosin (thicker network of protein filaments) walk and move actin filaments closer together to maker the cell smaller --> contraction
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Intermediate filament: function, shape, and protein subunit
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function: tension bering, anchorage of nucleus and certain organelles, formation of nuclear lamina
structure: fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables protein subunits: keratin family |
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What is the function of the mitochondria
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synthesizing energy (ATP)
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what two organelles are double membraned?
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chloroplasts and mitochondria
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cristae
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inner foldings of the mitochondria that give extra surface area to enhance cellular respiration
enzymes dock on the membrane |
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matrix
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the space in the mitochondria that contains DNA and ribosomes
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What is the function of the extracellular matrix in animal cells?
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-frame-structural support where cells can attach
-separate different tissues in an organism -regulate cell-cell communication |
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glycoprotein
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proteins with covalently bonded carbohydrate, usually a short chain of sugars
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What is the most abundant glycoprotein in the ECM?
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collagen
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What is the ECM mainly composed of?
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glycoproteins
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what is the function of collagen
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it forms strong fibers outside of the cell
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proteoglycans
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network of glycoproteins that are interwoven with collagen
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fibronectin
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attaches the extracellular matrix to integrins that are embedded in the plasma membrane
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integrins
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membrane proteins that bind to the ECM and also to the microfilaments in the cell
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What four things make up the structure of the ECM
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collagen
proteoglycans fibronectin integrins |
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What are the three intercellular junctions
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tight junctions
desmosomes gap junctions |
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tight junctions
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the plasma membrane of neighboring cells are tightly pressed against each other and are bound by proteins
they help to seal and prevent leakage |
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desmosomes
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function like rivets that fasten cells together into strong sheets
-intermediate filaments assist in the process that are made of keratin help anchor cells together |
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gap junctions
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provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell.
allow for communication between cells |
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phospholipid bilayer and amphipathic
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it has a hydrophilic head (polar)
and a hydrophobic tail (non polar) reason for the assembly of the phospholipid bilayer |
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What are the two types of movement in the phos. bilayer
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lateral movement (side to side) --frequent
flip flop --doesn't happen as often |
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What are three factors that affect fluidity
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1. saturation
2. temperature 3. cholesterol |
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How does unsaturated fatty acids affect fluidity?
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increase fluidity because it keeps the molecules from packing together
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How does saturated fatty acids affect fluidity?
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increase viscosity (less fluid) because it allows for close packing
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How does cholestrol affect fluidity?
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it reduces fluidity because it packs into the bilayer
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What are the 4 parts that make up the fluid mosaic model?
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lipid bilayer
cholestrol carbohydrates membrane proteins |
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Integral proteins
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penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer.
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Peripheral proteins
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not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all
they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane |
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transmembrane proteins
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span the membrane, being exposed to inside and out
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What are some functions of membrane proteins
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transport
enzymatic activity signal transduction cell cell recognition intercellular joining attaching to the ECM |
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What is allowed to pass through in selective permeability?
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small non polar molecules
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diffusion
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the tendency of molecules to spread out evenly
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What is the direction of movement in diffusion
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from a high concentration to a low concentration
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Passive transport
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diffusion from high to low
doesn't require any extra energy |
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Facilitated transport
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transport proteins help large polar molecules diffuse from high to low concentration
no energy cost -channel proteins and carrier proteins assist |
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Active transport
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Transport proteins move molecules against their concentration graient
require energy |
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osmosis
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the diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane
high to low |
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tonicity
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the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
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isotonic
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everyone is happy- no movement
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hypertonic
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the solution outside the cell has more solute and so the water leaves the cell
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hypotonic
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the solution inside the cell has more solute so water moves in
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Explain the Sodium Potassium Pump
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3 Sodiums will bind to a carrier protein (in the shape that it is in, the protein likes Na)
ATP will phosphorylate, causing the protein to change shape, no longer having an affinity for Na+, so it releases them outside the cell. Now having an affinity for K+, the protein wil take in 2 K+, which triggers the release of the phosphoryl group, causing the shape to change and the affinity for K+ |
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What is the consequence of the sodium potassium pump
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the creation of a membrane potential, or a difference in charge.
The outside is positive, the inside is less positive |
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Explain the proton pump in relation to co-transport
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H+ ions are moved outside of the cell, with the help of ATP and a protein. This creates a voltage difference across the membrane.
Since H+ will naturall diffuse across the membrane, sucrose is moved against its concentration gradient into the cell to provide for metabolic processes |
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metabolism
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the totality of an organisms' chemical reactions
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Energy
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he capacity to cause change and can be used to do work
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Two forms of energy and give an example for each
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Kinectic-motion
Ex: heat (thermal energy) potential-positoin ex: chemical energy |
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catabolic pathway
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break down pathways
exergonic creates energy |
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anabolic pathway
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forms moelcules
endergonic requires energy |
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1st law of thermodynamics
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energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be transferred or transformed
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2nd law of thermodynamics
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Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe
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Relate spontaneity and entropy
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A spontaneous process increase entropy
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Free energy
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represented by G
portion of the system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system change in free energy is = products - reactants final - initial |
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Spontaneous reactions and free energy
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No energy input is required
-tendency for a system with high G to go to low G Therefore the change in G is going to be negative |
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Exergonic reaction
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-releases free energy
-does not require energy -spontaneous -delta G is less than 0 -energy becomes available to do work |
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Endergonic reaction
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-consumes free
-requires energy -nonspontaneous -delta G is greater than 0 -free energy becomes stored in molecules |
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give an example of a catabolic pathway. is it exergonic or endergonic?
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Cellular respiration is exergonic
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give an example of an anabolic pathway. is it exergonic or endergonic?
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Photosynthesis is endergonic
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What is the goal of a living cell?
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not to be in equilibrium- you are dead if you achieve total equilibrium
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ATP
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adenosine triphosphate
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What is the structure of atp
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3 phosphate groups attached to ribose, which is attached to adenine
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Why is atp good for providing energy
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the phosphate groups that are negatively charged are forced closer together which creates greater chemical potenital energy
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What process releases the energy of atp? what are the products?
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Hydrolysis of ATP
Use water to break ATP into ADP and an inorganic phosphate |
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ATP and performing work: what types?
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coupling to make exergonic reactions
transport- binding to transport proteins mechanical- helping motor proteins move |
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what is activation energy
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the energy required to start a reaction
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what is an enzyme and how does it help with overcoming activation energy
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it is a protein that acts as a catalyst
substrates will bind to the active site of an enzyme and the interactions will weaken the bonds so that there is less energy required to begin the reaction |
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co factor
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non protein components to an enzyme
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enzyme inhibitors
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agents that inhibit catalysis and prevent enzymes from acting so
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what is an enzyme and how does it help with overcoming activation energy
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it is a protein that acts as a catalyst
substrates will bind to the active site of an enzyme and the interactions will weaken the bonds so that there is less energy required to begin the reaction |
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enzyme inhibitors
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agents that inhibit catalysis and prevent enzymes from acting so
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competetive inhibition
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in site bonding of agent
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co factor
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non protein components to an enzyme
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competetive inhibition
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in site bonding of agent
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non competitive inhibition
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agent bonds to outside of enzyme to change its comformation
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non competitive inhibition
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agent bonds to outside of enzyme to change its comformation
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enzyme inhibitors
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agents that inhibit catalysis and prevent enzymes from acting so
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allosteric regulation
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way of activating or stopping enzyme activity based on the binding of a regulatory molecule
this can stop/start a chain of chemical reactions |
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feedback regulation
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a pathway is switched off by its own product when there is too much of it and it binds to an enzyme
prevents wasting chemical resources |
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allosteric regulation
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way of activating or stopping enzyme activity based on the binding of a regulatory molecule
this can stop/start a chain of chemical reactions |
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competetive inhibition
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in site bonding of agent
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feedback regulation
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a pathway is switched off by its own product when there is too much of it and it binds to an enzyme
prevents wasting chemical resources |
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non competitive inhibition
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agent bonds to outside of enzyme to change its comformation
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allosteric regulation
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way of activating or stopping enzyme activity based on the binding of a regulatory molecule
this can stop/start a chain of chemical reactions |
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feedback regulation
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a pathway is switched off by its own product when there is too much of it and it binds to an enzyme
prevents wasting chemical resources |
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Oxidative phosphorylation
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Energy that is released through a series of redox reactions that is stored for the creation of ATP by combining an inorganic phosphate and ADP
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
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A substrate containing a phosphate group binds to an enzyme, along with ADP, and the P of the substrate is transferred to the ADP --> production of ATP
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Overall reaction for cellular respiration
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
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What is the purpose of cellular respiration
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to oxidize food molecules via O2 in order to make ATP to use for the body's metabolic processes
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How is energy controlled in cellular respiration?
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It is incrementally released through the step-wise process of breaking bonds
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Where does glycolysis occur
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in the cytosol
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What are the three focus areas of action for cellular respiration
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Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation: ETC + Chemiosmosis |
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How many steps is glycolysis?
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10
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What in essence happens during glycolysis?
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it is the process of breaking glucose into a molecule that the citric acid cycle can use, which is pyruvate
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Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?
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anaerobic (no o2)
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Pyruvate contains how many C?
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3
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how many ATP are produced during glycolysis?
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2
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Summarize the energy investment phase of glycolysis
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Glucose ( 6 carbon) will turn into 2 glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate ( a 3 C molecule w/ a Pi)
This requires 2 ATP and produces 2 ADP |
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What are the two general phases of glycolysis
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energy investment -uses ATP
energy pay off - produces ATP |
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Summarize the energy pay off phase of glycolysis
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2 of glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate are turned into 2 pyruvate molecules.
This requires 2 NAD+ which will be reduced to 2NADH + 2H+ 2 Pi and 4 ADP will be required as well It will produce 2 ATP |
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Where does the citric acid cycle take place
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mitochondrial matrix
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How many NAD+ are required for the citric acid cycle?
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8
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How many NADH and H+ are produced during the citric acid cycle?
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8
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How many ATP are produced in the citric acid cycle?
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2
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Why is pyruvate converted into acetyl CoA
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because it is more reactive due to its greater chemical potential energy
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Summarize what happens in the Citric Acid Cycle?
|
pyruvate is converted to acetyl coA
Requires: NAD+ and Coenzyme A Produces: CO2 and NADH+ + H+ Acetyl co A is attached to a 4 C molecule (oxaloacetate) to make a 6C Citric Acid molecule Electrons are stripped by NAD+ leading to the oxidation of C 2 CO2 are released 1 ATP is generated The 4 C molecule (oxaloacetate) is regenerated Requires: FAD --> FADH2 NAD+ --> NADH+ + H+ |
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acetyl coA has how many carbons?
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2
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How many electrons are transferred in the citric acid cycle?
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20 overall
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How many times does the citric acid cycle occur?
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twice to accomodate the 2 pyruvate
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Oxidative Phosphorylation creates ATP how?
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via redox reactions that phosphorylated ADP
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Where is the ETC located?
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inner mitochondrial matrix
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what is the structure of the ETC
|
carrier proteins are bound w/ cofactors in order to form complexes
3 are embedded into the membrane 2 are mobile |
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How does the ETC work?
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NADH and FADH2 are oxidized and the electrons are passed down their energy gradient down the electron acceptors, releasing energy progressively, until the last set of electrons reach Oxygen
During this process hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane this leads to a product of water |
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atp synthase
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the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and Pi with the help of a proton gradient
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How does chemiosmosis work
|
H+ move with their concentration gradient and bind into the rotor of atp synthase which then causes it to rotate which catalyzes the production of ATP
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How many net ATP are made at the end of cellular respiration
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38 or 36 ATP
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What is fermentation
|
it is an extension of glycolysis that has an extra step to recycle NADH back to NAD
uses substrate phosphorylation generates ATP with out oxygen |
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Alcohol fermentation
|
turns pyruvate into ethanol
1. Co2 released to turn 3 C pyruvate into a 2C molecule 2. the 2C molecule turns into ethanol by the reduction of NADH to NAD |
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What is the use of alcoholic fermentation?
|
yeast for bread
sugar for beverages |
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Lactic acid fermentation
|
pyruvate is directly converted into lactate by being reduced by NADH
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uses for lactic acid fermentation
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cheese
animal muscle cells in exercise |
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Why is NAD+ a good oxidizing agent?
|
Because electrons lose very little of their potential energy when they are transferred from glucose.
The chemical bonds are good storage for potential energy |
