Ornithology3

Front 1

which sex is homogametic and heterogametic in birds?

Back 1

male = homogametic (ZZ)
female = heterogametic (ZW)

(may be 2 copies of DMRT1 makes male?)

Front 2

phenotypic sex

Back 2

actions make it male/female
hormones cause actions

Front 3

pituitary gland

Back 3

produces testosterone

Front 4

female masculinization

Back 4

age-related (possibly cortex damage)
don't produce aromatase, so can't make estrogen from testosterone
effects: male plumage, stop laying, start crowing
eg: golden pheasant, peacocks, ducks

Front 5

estrogen

Back 5

created from testosterone with aromatase

Front 6

sex-specific behaviors (phenotypic sex)

Back 6

neck grab, mount, cloacal contact
if you treat with opposite hormones young, act like opposite sex, can't turn it back

Front 7

singing in Zebra Finch males

Back 7

giving estrogen inhibitors & testosterone to females allows them to sing
nuclei in motor and learning circuit still smaller than males

Front 8

gynandromorph

Back 8

half male, half female
-zebra finches, only male half has well-developed singing nuclei (though it has the right hormones)

Front 9

somatic cells and sex determination

Back 9

soma have sex even before gonads develop
(put male gonadal cells in female ova, will be pushed to periphery, but female soma will be incorporated)

Front 10

definition of male/female

Back 10

male: produces sperm and acts in such a way as to fertilize eggs
female: produces an egg and acts in such a way as to fertilize eggs

Front 11

clutch

Back 11

laid over series of days with delayed incubation
(reptiles lay all at once, dinos probably did 2 at a time)

Front 12

follicle growth (in females)

Back 12

determined by levels of estrodiol

Front 13

size determination (of clutch) hypotheses

Back 13

Lack's ecological hypothesis: as many young as you can successfully feed
reproductive tradeoffs: current vs future reproduction
predation hypothesis: larger clutch => more activity/noise
shelf-life hypothesis: delayed incubation means clutch no larger than time it takes for first egg to rot

Front 14

blood spots on egg

Back 14

not indication of fertilized egg (enlarged germinal spot is)

Front 15

yolk

Back 15

food : 21-36% lipids, 16-22% proteins

Front 16

albumen

Back 16

90% water, 10% protein

Front 17

egg shell

Back 17

protection, constant environment
crystalline structure
pore canals for gas (02, c02) and water vapor exchange
pesticides=> shell thinning => endangered species

Front 18

parts of an egg shell

Back 18

cuticle
spongy layer
mammilary layer
shell membrane

Front 19

egg shell color mechanism

Back 19

in the shell gland
pigments: porphyrins (endogenous, metal in molecule), part of red blood cells, probably get to egg from breakdown of cells in liver
biliverdin: product of metabolic processes in liver (bile)

Front 20

egg shell color reasons

Back 20

camouflage
recognition
physical strength of shell
thermal regulation
sexual selection (indicates female's health....maybe but males don't care)
variations in eggs (predators might spare some)
selectively neutral (just happened)

Front 21

fertilization

Back 21

occurs in the infundibulum
sperm deposited in vagina or cloaca

Front 22

sperm goal

Back 22

1-4b sperm
200-500 make it to the egg
(holes in membrane where they make it through)
more sperm around germinal disk (signal?)
some stored in sperm storage tubule: last mate precedence, no female choice, live for up to 80 days

Front 23

sperm development

Back 23

made in seminiferous tubes
travel out via vas deferens
need to mature in vas deferens (learn to swim)

Front 24

what can the male do since females mate with more than one

Back 24

peck at cloaca until it ejects
make more sperm (testes larger in migratory, colonial than resident, solitary)
produce sperm that are longer and swim faster

Front 25

acrosome

Back 25

cap-like structure of sperm, burrows into egg

Front 26

sperm parts

Back 26

acrosome: cap
nucleus: genetic material
midpiece: mitochondria "battery pack" (helical in passerines, wraps around flagellum)
flagellum: swim

Front 27

cloacal kiss

Back 27

no intermittent organ

Front 28

duck penis

Back 28

external sperm channel
lymphatic erection mechanism
highly seasonal
argentine lake duck!

Front 29

egg size

Back 29

larger females lay proportionately smaller eggs
egg mass proportional to basal metabolic rate

Front 30

canaries deal with asynchronous hatching

Back 30

by putting more T in later eggs= more aggressive begging

Front 31

nutrients in eggs

Back 31

antibodies: immunoglobulins (IgY is most important)
carrotenoids: protect lipid metabolism, anti-oxidants, also preserve antibodies
hormones (eg canaries)

Front 32

weaver finch nests

Back 32

use knots, learn over time to make more adv. nests
ring => roof => egg chamber

Front 33

megapode nest incubation

Back 33

exception to body heat incubation: compost!

Front 34

incubation is done mostly by

Back 34

both male and female (37% female only, though male may stick around)

Front 35

changes in brooding birds

Back 35

hormones!: prolactin increases, progesterone decreases
brood patch: feathers plucked or fall off, thickening of normally fragile skin (not all birds)

Front 36

incubate constantly for:

Back 36

10 days, keep steady temp
recesses are less as time goes on (some don't take any)

Front 37

extra-embryotic membranes in egg

Back 37

amnion: fluid-filled cavity for embryo
allantoic sac: waste
chorion/allantoic????: breathing
yolk sac: not taken in directly, enzymes break it down first

Front 38

intestine development

Back 38

grow outside, then encapsulated
some have a bellybutton!

Front 39

which is heavier, chick or egg?

Back 39

egg: shell + lose water through respiration (air bubble gets bigger)

Front 40

hatching

Back 40

pierce membrane to air bubble, breathe
use egg tooth to break shell

Front 41

parental involvement after hatching

Back 41

key aspects (most to least important) : down, eyes open, mobility, parental nourishment, parental attendance
superprecocial: megopodes, go off as soon as they hatch
precocial: eg titamu within 24 hours can walk, get much more yolk
altricial: lack down, don't need to incubate as long

Front 42

methods of bringing food to offspring

Back 42

-show where food is
-regurgitate
-bring single prey back
-frugivores/seed eaters sometimes bring insects (protein!)
-crop milk (pigeons, doves, flamingos produce cottage cheese thing in crop)
-slight drop in weight with flight

Front 43

bateman's principle

Back 43

females are the limited resource in mating game b/c must put forth most effort in egg producing

Front 44

tradeoff between reproduction and maintenance

Back 44

gametes (mostly female effort) + parental care (mostly female effort) + mating (mostly male effort) = sexual dimorphism

Front 45

sexual dimorphism

Back 45

doesn't really occur when there are the same number male/females
male-male competition + female choice

Front 46

phylogeny and display

Back 46

closely related species have related displays (sky-pointing display in boobies)

Front 47

leks provide females

Back 47

DNA market (desirable genes)
protection during breeding season
access to good food
parental care

Front 48

bird of paradise probably can have elaborate displays because:

Back 48

plenty of resources, few predators

Front 49

females look for

Back 49

vigor-energy
health (parasites)
attractiveness
agility
ability to avoid danger: despite flashiness, alive
beauty
ability to contribute excess resources to display
interest in mating

Front 50

animal altruism

Back 50

turkey brothers display together (b/c females prefer two displays)

Front 51

genetic dimorphism in Ruffs

Back 51

light plumage males: just follow females, inseminate less, but live longer
dark plumage males: territorial
faeder males: female-like, initiate copulation with territorial male, inseminate on the run, largest testes

Front 52

bower birds

Back 52

bower attracts females
symmetry, color, creativity
transference hypothesis: trade beauty of feather/song for structure
brain-size increases with complexity of bowers

Front 53

what do females gain by choosing?

Back 53

avoid STDs, parasites
good quality territory
high fecundity
good partner for raising offspring
protection from harassment
safe nesting site
indirectly: genes passed on to offspring:
-high quality (carry handicap etc)
-preferred by females (arbitrary traits selected over time)
-genetically compatible MHC

Front 54

MHC

Back 54

major histocompatibility complex
genetic component of immune system, try to get one that's different from your own in a mate

Front 55

monogamy

Back 55

one male, one female, raise offspring together
90% of birds (although rarer in vertebrates generally): b/c chicks need more help, esp with flying

Front 56

polygyny

Back 56

one male, many females
2%
resource based: defend territory/food, trade food for copulation
eg: Acrocephaline Warblers: when there is a lot of food, less paternal care, pursue multiple mates, otherwise monogamous
also: leks, dominance hierarchy where a few males get most of the females

Front 57

polyandry

Back 57

females form prolonged association with more than one male
less than 1%
males provide parental care
females aggressive, infanticide in rival's territory

Front 58

promiscuity

Back 58

males and females mate with multiple birds, brief association
6%
one type of parrot: females mate with many, brood alone, eggs hatch, red head, distinctive call makes mates come with food

Front 59

paleognathae mating

Back 59

(kiwis etc)
male paternal care
communal clutches?
ancestral feature (maniraptorans)

Front 60

social vs genetic mating system

Back 60

despite association with single mate, female birds mate with multiple males
eg: Superb fairy wren
not incredibly common, but happens

Front 61

why more than one mate?

Back 61

more direct benefits (territory, food)
hormones!
indirect benefits: brood is genetically diverse
mated to a low quality male for convenience, but get high quality genes for offspring

Front 62

costs of multiple mates

Back 62

partner less likely to help out
retaliation (male also pursues others, or physically aggressive)
STDs
increased risk of cuckoldry
decreased offspring survival b/c decreased paternal care

Front 63

way to defend paternity

Back 63

mate time spent with female increases when clutch is being laid

Front 64

Dunnocks: alpha/beta males

Back 64

female sneaks into bushes with beta
displays for alpha, he pecks at cloaca until she ejects, then mates with her
(2 mates to care for her young)

Front 65

monogamous pair-bond in ducks

Back 65

mate selection in winter
excess of males, female parental care
=> groups of males (unmated or already brooded) forced copulation (size of penis, females resist, 10% of deaths)

Front 66

forced copulation

Back 66

not very successful: 30-40% of copulations, 3-4% paternity
waterfowl vagina: not just tube, but blind pouches and spirals

Front 67

genital coevolution

Back 67

no fc = simple penis, vagina
FC= vagina spiral in opposite direction of penis so if the muscles are rigid cannot fully extravert, oviduct is muscular so pulsate when they want the copulation

Front 68

cooperative breeding

Back 68

multiple indiv assist with offspring
occurs when environment is harsh (Saharra, Australia): unpredictable rain, in bad years, children stay back to help raise siblings
eg Seychelles warbler: cooperative breeding when territory saturation
helpers are mostly female, mostly in high quality territory
kin selection

Front 69

territory inheritance

Back 69

eg florida scrub jays (coop breeder), sons bud off parents' territory (carve into neighbor's with family's help)
eg Fairy Wrens: coop breeding, mixed paternity, but no effect on survival, sometimes completely unrelated to breeders, parents just work less

Front 70

egg dumping

Back 70

intraspecific brood parasitism
~1%
bet hedging
eg Coots (aterritorial, up to 13% of eggs in some species)

Front 71

fight against parasitism

Back 71

egg color (mothers reject eggs not close to host egg color)
reject by pushing to side or burying
don't get too thorough, might reject own
build nest on top of nest

Front 72

obligate parasitism

Back 72

no nest, all dumping of eggs
4 lineages, no going back to nesting
fed anyways, because instinct to feed open mouth is strong (fish?)

Front 73

successful cuckoo parasitism

Back 73

lay eggs from a height, break host eggs, thick shells, pattern evolves to be similar to host (often waits an extra day b/c searching for the right nest)
males have multiple mates

Front 74

egg color and parasitism

Back 74

eggs that are too different are rejected
just focus on one other species, so evolve to closely match
egg color is encoded in W of ZW, so doesn't matter mate
imprint on host, matrilineal line
arms race

Front 75

4 groups of nest parasites

Back 75

cuckoos
honey guides: cavity nests, polygynous, fast hatching (8-9days), hooked beak to kill other nestlings
cowbirds: may evolve to parasitize more than one host
Vidua finches: learn songs from new host, polygynous males, but use host song to attract females, evolved strange head patterns

Front 76

brood parasitism doesn't lead to/come from cospeciation because

Back 76

hosts are usually ancient, whereas parasites or only recently and weekly speciated

Front 77

non-reproductive social behavior

Back 77

v-shaped flocking : lift at lower cost b/c leader's vortex
massive flocks
mobbing of predators

Front 78

massive flocks

Back 78

info transfer
predator avoidance (don't be bird at the edge)
wave of decision goes faster than speed of thought (algorithms?)

Front 79

mobbing of predators

Back 79

often when there are lots of species of predators
sometimes multi-species, with a pecking order (mob owl then mob one of the mobbing species)
harass to blow cover, drive out of territory

Front 80

multi-species wintering flocks

Back 80

all watch for predators
lower risk of any individual being picked off
info exchange: food sources
even close competitors cooperate b/c advantages

Front 81

facultative flocking (multi-species)

Back 81

when flock goes by, you join it until they leave your territory

Front 82

nearly obligate flocking (multi-species)

Back 82

you have the same territory as the flock

Front 83

mutualism

Back 83

Thamnomanes ant shrikes : sally gleaners (watch for predators too)
folliage gleaners: prey up close, scare away prey for sally gleaners to grab mid-air

Front 84

obligate army ant followers

Back 84

army ants : overnight bivouac
vanguard + column, vanguard eats everything, nasty bite
lots of birds at vanguard, snatch startled prey, defend best territories, brilliant plumage
obligate: only follow ants, one army
facultative: keep track of various armies, go to different ones

Front 85

Bernt Heinreich and ravens

Back 85

200+ juvenals in one tree
gang up on mated pair for good food

Front 86

geographic variation: hypotheses

Back 86

adaptive (favored by environment), phenotypic (outside appearance), or plasticity
tested: Colorado (fox sparrow?) will be bigger (more like Minnesota bird) if raised in Minnesota

Front 87

classical biological species concept

Back 87

Ernst Mayr:
"species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other groups"

Front 88

problems with classical biological species concept

Back 88

can lead to ahistorical groupings
eg. Baltimore and Bullock's Oriole (both have species closer on phylogenetic tree, but can interbreed, hybrids can breed with either, but only do so in small zone)

Front 89

phylogenetic species concept

Back 89

the most exclusive diagnosable phylogenetic lineage

Front 90

evolutionary species concept

Back 90

lineage with its own evolutionary history and fate (not a description of how to id species)

Front 91

canada goose => Nene
re: speciation

Back 91

biological: maybe, can they interbreed?
phylogenetic: maybe has the same genes as mainland goose
evolutionary: own lineage, history and fate. species!

Front 92

historical biogeography

Back 92

why do communities live in different places?

Front 93

endemism

Back 93

restriction in range/distribution of species or taxon
(life is endemic to Earth)

Front 94

dispersal vs vicariance

Back 94

dispersal: displacement over a barrier, happens individually or intrinsically, can be active or passive
vicariance: imposition of barrier on a uniform population: passive, extrinsic

Front 95

stochastic (random) vs generalizable

Back 95

eg Pinopsitta Parrot phylogeny, is generalizable b/c see the same phylogeny breaks in Toucans

Front 96

conservation success

Back 96

Peregrin Falcon: hunting + bioaccumulation of organic pesticides (DDT)

Front 97

environmental niche modeling

Back 97

rainfall, altitude and other abiotic variations to see current and possible ranges
useful for: predicting new species (chameleons in Madagascar), climate change scenarios