Organizational Effectiveness Test 3

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stages of group development

Back 1

orientation, confrontation, differentiation, collaboration

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orientation

Back 2

the first stage of group development when members are getting to know each other

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confrontation

Back 3

the second stage of group development when members resolve issues regarding conflicting roles and expectations

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differentiation

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the third stage of group development when members divide the work to be done and perform their assigned tasks

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collaboration

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the fourth stage of group development when group members form a cohesive relationship and are committed to the group's success

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virtual team

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groups that rely on electronic communication rather than face-to-face interaction

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additive tasks

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an independent group task in which the contributions of all members are simply summed or pooled to form the group product

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conjunctive tasks

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a group task that is divided into interdependent subparts and the successful completion of each subpart is necessary for overall task accomplishment

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disjunctive tasks

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a group task involving some for of decision making or problem analysis that requires a yes or no decision

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process losses

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inefficiencies that arise from having to coordinate the contributions and activities of group members

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social density

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the number of people physically located within a confined area

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assigned roles

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group roles that are formally assigned to group members

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emergent roles

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group roles that are voluntarily performed by group members without being formally assigned

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work roles

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the activities performed by one or more group members that help the group accomplish its task and pursue its goals; for example, structuring the tasks, delegating assignments, and initiating action

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maintenance roles

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the activities performed by one or more group members that are designed to maintain the members' willingness to participate in the group

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blocking roles

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group roles that prevent the group from functioning effectively because they attack other group members or divert the group's attention

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role episode

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an encounter between a role sender and the focal person in which role expectations are sent, received, and evaluated

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focal person

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the person in a role episode to whom the expectations are communicated

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role readiness

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an individual's preparation to perform a group role by possessing the appropriate motivation and/or ability

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intrasender role conflict

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role conflict created by incompatible demands of a single role sender

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intersender role conflict

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role conflict created by incompatible demands and expectations of two or more role senders

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person role conflict

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role conflict created by asking people to behave in ways that violate their personal values

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role overload

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role conflict caused by too many demands on a person

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group norms

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general expectations of a demand nature regarding acceptable group behavior

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norm of reciprocity

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a widely accepted social norm that if person A helps person B, then person B has an obligation to help others, especially person A

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reward dependence

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when group members feel induced to conform to group pressure because there are positive or negative consequences attached to doing so

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information dependence

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when group members feel induced to conform to group pressure because they depend on the group to provide important information to help them know what to do

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compliance

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the first level of conformity, in which the individual's motive is to obtain rewards or avoid punishment

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identification

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the second level of conformity, in which the motive to conform is to please or be like others

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internalization

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the highest level of conformity, in which the motive to conform is based on the group member's acceptance of the prescribed behavior as a basic principle of right and wrong

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social facilitation effect

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the tendency for the presence of other people to increase motivation and arousal, which tends to help the individual perform better

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evaluation apprehension

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the concern that people experience when they know they are being observed and evaluated by others

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social inhibition effect

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the tendency for the presence of other people to disrupt performance and cause them to perform poorly

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social loafing

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the tendency to exert less effort when working as a member of a group than when working alone

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deindividuation

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the loss of individuality that occurs by being a member of a large crowd

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altruism

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behavior intended to help someone else with no expectation of an immediate extrinsic reward for helping

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cooperation

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the relationship that exists between to or more individuals who both benefit from working together and share the benefits of their joints efforts

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competition

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an interaction between two or more parties in which the parties cannot meet their goals simultaneously. The success of one individual or group prevents other groups or individuals from being successful

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intragroup competition

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the members of a group compete against each other for a reward

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intergroup competition

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one group is competing against another group for the rewards

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individual competition/noncompetition

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individuals work independently against an external standard or their own personal record

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conflict

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interaction between individuals and groups in which one attempts to defeat, destroy, or inflict damage on the other because of mutually exclusive goals or values

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organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

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when an employees voluntarily helps other employees with no promise of reward. Behavior directed toward helping individuals are also called altruism while behaviors directed toward helping the organization are called compliance

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cohesiveness

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the degree of interpersonal attraction of group members for each other and for membership in the group

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relationship conflict

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refers to interpersonal incompatibilities and produces negative affective feelings of tension and friction

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process conflict

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refers to controversy about how the group should function, such as who should do what, how much responsibility different people should have, and who gets to decide; tends to reduce the performance of the group

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task conflict

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refers to differences of opinion about how the task should be done; does not necessarily include the angry feelings associated with interpersonal conflict

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functional conflict

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conflict that contributes to the effectiveness of the organization by increasing motivation or improving the quality of decision making

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dysfunctional conflict

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any interaction between two parties that hinders or destroys the achievement of organizational or group goals

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zero-sum conflict

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a type of conflict where the gains to one party represent losses to the other. For one party to win, the other must lose

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mixed-motive conflict

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a solution in which an individual can wither compete to maximize his or her personal gains or cooperate to maximize the group gains

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Prisoner's dilemma game

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a method of studying conflict by asking subjects to make wither a competitive or a cooperative choice in a mixed-motive game

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task interdependence

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occurs when two or more groups depend on each other to accomplish their tasks, and the potential for conflict increases as the degree of interpersonal dependence increases

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pooled interdependence

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an additive group task that does not require group members to coordinate their efforts; instead, their individual efforts are simply summed or pooled to form the group product

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sequential interdependence

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situation in which the task structure is similar to an assembly line in which the performance of later groups depends on the performance of earlier groups

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reciprocal interdependence

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a conjunctive group task in which each member of the group is mutually dependent on each of the other members of the group and successful task completion can be obtained only if each member does his or her part

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avoidance strategies

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a method of responding to conflict situations by either ignoring the conflict or separating the conflicting parties

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power intervention strategies

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a method of responding to conflict situations by having higher-level management impose a solution or political maneuvering among conflicting members to obtain a majority vote

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diffusion strategies

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a conflict resolution method that tries to reduce the emotional anger by either smoothing over the disagreement, developing a compromise, or creating a common enemy to distract attention

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resolution strategies

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a method of trying to resolve conflict by identifying the cause of the problem through problem solving, removing the cause of the conflict by a structural change, or by creating a higher-level goal that requires cooperation

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superordinate goals

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goals that are highly important to both sides and that cannot be achieved without working together

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organizational structure

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the arrangement of jobs and the relationships among the jobs in an organization

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organizational design

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the process of deciding on the type of structure appropriate for an organization, particularly regarding its division of labor, departmentalization, span of control, delegation of authority, and coordinating mechanisms

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division of labor

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the process of dividing work into specialized jobs that are performed by separate individuals

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departmentalization

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the process of assigning jobs to units or departments according to one of these common criteria: function, product, geographical area, or clientele

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functional departmentalization

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creating departments by grouping jobs that all perform similar functions

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suboptimizing

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where one department pursues its self interest at the expense of the larger organization

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product departmentalization

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when departments are created by assigning all jobs that produce the same product to a department

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geographic departmentalization

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creating departments by assigning all the jobs in the same geographical region to the same department

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customer departmentalization

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creating departments by assigning all the jobs that serve a particular group of customers to the same department

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span of control

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the number of subordinates assigned to a supervisor; span of control is dependent on four situational variables: contact required, level of subordinates' education and training, ability to communicate, nature of the task

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centralized authority

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where the authority to make organizational decisions is retained by top managers in the central office

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decentralized authority

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where the authority to make organizational decisions is delegated to lower-level managers and supervisors

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coordinating mechanisms

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five primary methods are available for coordinating the activities of members, and these methods vary according to the amount of discretion that workers are allowed: direct supervision, standardization of work processes, standardization of outputs, standardization of skills, and mutual adjustment

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mutual adjustment

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a means of achieving organizational coordination by allowing people to coordinate their work through informal processes, mutually adjusting to each others needs

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formalization

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the degree to which employee behaviors are guided by formal rules and procedures

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matrix organizational structure

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a combination of two different forms of departmentalization, usually functional and product departmentalization

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universal theories of organizational design

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theories of organizational design that purport to be universally appropriate for every organization. Two widely contrasting universal design theories are bureaucracy and System Four

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mechanistic organizational structure

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a formal organizational structure characterized by highly specialized tasks that are carefully and rigidly defined, with a strict hierarchy of authority to control them. Bureaucracy is a type of mechanistic structure

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organic organizational structure

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a type of organizational structure characterized by people who work together in an informal arrangement, sharing ideas and information, and performing a wider variety of tasks based on whatever is needed to accomplish the group's task

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virtual workplace

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a flexible workplace where people work at any time and anyplace in informal relationships, usually with computer technologies

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bureaucracy

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an organizational structure what is characterized by an elaborate division of labor based on functional specialization, a hierarchy of authority assigned to different offices, a system of rules explaining how everyone is to perform, impersonal relationships, promotion and selection based on competencies, and written communications and records

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means-end inversion

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when the means of accomplishing a goal become so important that people focus on that activity rather than what the activity is intended to accomplish; a disadvantage of bureaucracy

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Peter principle

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a satirical explanation for incompetence in bureaucracies, suggesting that people rise to their level of incompetence

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System Four

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a type of organizational structure characterized by responsibility and initiative on the part of members, widely shared decision-making authority, decentralized decision making, and goal setting by employees

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exploitive-authoritative style (System One)

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characterized by the threat of punishment, hostile attitudes, downwards communication, and distrust; top management makes all the decisions and goals

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benevolent-authoritative style (System Two)

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slightly less hostile and threatening than system one, but all decisions, goal setting, and communications are directly under the control of top management

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consultative style (System Three)

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involves greater coordination between upper and lower levels of management

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participatory-group oriented (System Four)

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a type of organizational structure characterized by responsibility and initiative on the part of members, widely shared decision-making authority, decentralized decision making, and goal setting by employees

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principle of supportive relationships

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a universal principle that suggests that every interaction between superiors and subordinates should be transacted in a way that builds and encourages each in the performance of their respective duties

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linking pins

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people who link different organizational units by being a member of one group and the leader of the group below

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contingency design theories

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organizational design theories that claim the ideal structure depends on the organization's requirements

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technology

Back 93

the knowledge, tools, techniques, and actions that are used to transform organizational inputs to outputs; the organization's transformation process

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differentiation

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the degree of segmentation or division of labor into specialized jobs. It includes the behavioral attributes brought about by creating a narrow, department-oriented focus in the minds of individuals

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integration

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the coordinating activity that is used to achieve a unity of effort among various subsystems with an organization. The five major methods of integration include direct supervision, standardization of work processes, standardization of outputs, standardization of skills, or mutual adjustment.

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organizational climate

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the characteristics describing an organization that are relatively visible and stable but amendable to change

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organizational culture

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the shared beliefs and expectations among the members of an organization that are relatively enduring and resistant to change; more stable and enduring than climate and also more difficult to define and evaluate

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cultural artifacts

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the visible symbols and objects that are unique to an organization and that suggest the kinds of shared beliefs and expectations of members

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shared norms

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the common expectations that guide the behavior of organizational members

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cultural values

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the social values that are shared among the members of an organization and tend to regulate their individual behaviors and induce collective conformity; four criteria for examining cultural values: values should be viable, balanced, aligned, and authentic

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shared assumptions

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make up the deepest level of culture; the foundation beliefs that impact how people think about and respond to organizational events, but which are mostly subconscious

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external adaptation

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how the organization responds to the external environment and the changes that occur in it

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internal integration

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how the organization coordinates its internal systems and processes

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rites and ceremonies

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the special events in organizations that recognize individuals and the ways they are treated

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rites of passage

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show that an individual's status has changed, such as a promotion or retirement

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rites of enhancement

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reinforce the achievement and accomplishment of individuals, such as recognitions awards and graduations

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rites of renewal

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emphasize changes and improvements in the organization, such as opening a new store or launching a new item

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rites of integration

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unite diverse groups or teams within the organization and renew commitment to the larger organization, such as annual prices and company newsletters

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rites of conflict reduction

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focus on resolving conflicts or disagreements that arise in organizations, such as grievance hearings or unions contract negotiations

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rites of degradation

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are used by organizations to publicly punish or demean persons who fail to adhere to the accepted norms and values, such as demotion or dissemination of a public apology

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power distance

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the acceptability of status differentials between members of a society

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uncertainty avoidance

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the degree of ambiguity and uncertainty people are willing to tolerate

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individualism vs. collectivism

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the degree to which people are willing to act individually as a unique person versus as a uniform member of a group

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masculinity vs. femininity

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the degree to which gender role differences are emphasized in terms of valuing assertive and aggressive male roles over more tender feminine attributes

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steps to change organizational culture

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conduct a culture audit, assess the need for change, unfreeze the current culture, elicit support from the cultural elite, implement an intervention strategy, and monitor and evaluate

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symbolic interaction

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the idea that communication consists of the transmission of messages through symbols that must be properly encoded and decoded to convey the intended message

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communication process

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source (sender) →message (stimulus; composed of symbols) →encoding (changes message into symbols) → channel (from source to receiver) → receiver (person must interpret message) → decoding process (translating and interpreting the message) → (indicates effectiveness of communication) → noise (disrupts transmission) (→)

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encoding

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the process of translating the intended message into symbols that can be used to transmit the message

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decoding

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the process of translating the symbols contained in a message into meaning and interpreting the message

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noise

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any type of interference in the transmission of a message, either actual noise or interference within the channel

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credibility

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the degree of expertise and trustworthiness in the source

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latitude of acceptance

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the range of attitudes or opinions that are sufficiently close to the receiver's opinion that the receiver is willing to attend to the message

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supportive communication

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communication designed to help both parties maintain open and congruent communication by avoiding defensiveness; it is descriptive, problem-oriented, flexible, and owned

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owned

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the communicator takes responsibility for what is said

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disowning communications

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speaking in the third person or using plural pronouns

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empathetic listening

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active listening that requires you to project yourself into the speaker's frame of reference to comprehend the full impact of the message

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expressed level of empathy

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the level of understanding at which the listener paraphrases, restates, or summarizes the content of the communication as it was stated

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implied level of empathy

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a more advanced level of listening in which the listener attends not only to what the communicator expresses, but also to what was implied or left unstated

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variable of nonverbal communication

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physical distance, posture, facial cues, vocal cues, and appearance

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proxemics

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a study of the physical distance between two people during communication

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kinesics

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a study of the posture of people while speaking

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paralinguistics

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a study of the meaning of vocal cues during communication

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downward communication

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follows the organizational hierarchy and flows from higher level people to those in lower levels; problem: inaccuracy as the information is passed from level to level

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upward communication

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designed to look at feedback on how well the organization is functioning (memos, written reports, suggestion boxes, group meetings, and grievances); problem: filtered information and lower-level employees must initiate

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horizontal communication

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lateral communication between peers; formal bureaucratic structures do not allow for it

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grapevine/informal communication

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the informal communication system through which messages are passed in an organization, especially rumors and myths; found in every organizations and information typically travels more quickly this way

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communication roles

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gatekeepers, liaisons, opinion leaders, and boundary sponsors

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gatekeeper

Back 138

a communication role in an organizational structure that controls the flow of information, especially between lower and upper levels of management

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liason

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a communication role within an organizational structure in which an individual serves as a communication link between two groups

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opinion leader

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a communication role in an organizational structure in which noted personalities become the opinion leaders who receive information from the mass media and interpret it for other organizational members

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boundary spanners

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individuals who perform the role of communicating with the organization's environment by sensing environmental changes and selling the organization to the environment

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ways to improve communication

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increasing feedback, regulating information flow, repetition, simplifying language, and effective timing

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barriers to effective communication

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omission, filtering, time pressures, jargon, value judgments, differing frames of reference, selective listening, semantic problems, and information overload

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reactions to communication overload

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disregarding, queuing, filtering, approximating, and multiple channels

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linking pins

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people who link different organizational units by being a member of one group and the leader of the group below

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contingency design theories

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organizational design theories that claim the ideal structure depends on the organization's requirements

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technology

Back 147

the knowledge, tools, techniques, and actions that are used to transform organizational inputs to outputs; the organization's transformation process

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differentiation

Back 148

the degree of segmentation or division of labor into specialized jobs. It includes the behavioral attributes brought about by creating a narrow, department-oriented focus in the minds of individuals

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integration

Back 149

the coordinating activity that is used to achieve a unity of effort among various subsystems with an organization. The five major methods of integration include direct supervision, standardization of work processes, standardization of outputs, standardization of skills, or mutual adjustment.

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deindividuation

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the loss of individuality that occurs by being a member of a large crowd

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assimilation

Back 151

the final stage of the role transition process, in which people are integrated into the new role

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anticipatory socialization

Back 152

the process of acquiring the attitudes and behaviors associated with a new role as people anticipate changing from one role to another

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reality shock

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realizing that a new role is not as glamorous as it appeared at first

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realistic job previews

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a recruiting strategy that involves telling applicants both the favorable and the unfavorable aspects of a job so they have a more realistic understanding of it and can make an informed decision

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sponsor

Back 155

a person assigned to mentor or help new employees become oriented and socialized into their new job