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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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sensations
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environmental stimuli that we are capable of receiving through one or more of the five sense mechanisms
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attention
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part of the perceptual process in which we acknowledge the reception of senses from the environment, The major characteristics involved in attending to physical stimuli include size, intensity, frequency, contrast, motion, change, and novelty
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perception
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the process of interpreting and organizing the sensations we attend to
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perceptual inferences
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the process of extrapolating from a small amount of information to form a complete perception about an object or event. Often we are required to act on only limited pieces of information from which we infer what more information might tell us
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perceptual organization
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the process of organizing our perceptions into recognizable patterns. Four of the principles we use to assist us in this effort include figure-ground separation, similarity, proximity, and closure
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cognitive complexity
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the degree to which individuals have developed complex categories for organizing information
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theory x vs. theory y
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a theory proposed by Douglas McGregor that explains two opposite perceptual styles of managers. Managers who espouse Theory X see employees as lazy and refusing to work, while managers who espouse Theory Y believe employees are dedicated and willing to work
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halo effect
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one of the perceptual errors in which individuals allow one characteristic about a person to influence their evaluations of other personality characteristics
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selective perception
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a source of perceptual caused by people choosing to perceive only the information that they find acceptable
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implicit personalities
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the process of allowing our personal stereotypes and expectations regarding certain kinds of people to create a perceptual set that influences how we respond to other people
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projection
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a form of perceptual bias in which we project our own personal feelings and attitudes onto others as a means of helping us interpret their attitudes and feelings
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primary effect
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the tendency for first impressions and early information to unduly influence our evaluations and judgment
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stereotyping
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the process of using a few attributes about an object to classify it and then responding to it as a member of a category rather than as a unique object
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Pygmalion effect (self-fulfilling prophecy)
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a process that explains how the expectations in the mind of one person, such as a teacher or researcher, come to influence the behaviors of others, such as students or subjects, such that the latter achieves the former's expectations
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personality
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the attributes and predispositions associated with each individual that make that person unique and predict how that person will likely behave in many situations
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fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to overestimate the influence of personality factors when interpreting the actions of others
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attribution theory
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a theory that explains how we assign responsibility for behavior to personality characteristics or environmental circumstances
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Big Five model
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five broad personality traits that seem to be conceptually different and empirically distinct (conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, openness to experience, extroversion)
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locus of control
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a personality trait that is determined by whether individuals think the rewards they obtain are based on internal factors such as knowledge, effort, and skill, or external factors such as luck, chance, and fate
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self-efficacy
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a belief in one's ability to perform a specific activity, determined by how well the person has learned and practiced the task; acquired by four kinds of information cues: enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and perception of one's psychological state
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hypothetical construct
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an abstract concept regarding the relationships between people and events that exists because we can operationally define it even though it does not have a physical reality (e.g., satisfaction, intelligence, commitment, and honesty)
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attitude
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the positive or negative feelings we hold toward an object; there are three attitude components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral tendency
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emotional intelligence
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the competencies that allow us to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions in ourselves and others; it is organized into four dimensions representing the recognition of emotion in ourselves versus others and the regulation of emotions in ourselves versus others: self awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management
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behavioral intentions
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the extent to which we actually expect to perform a given act
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behavioral evaluations
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the intervening process between behavior and attitudes in which we interpret and make sense of our behavior
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job satisfaction
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consists of the attitudes employees hold regarding factors in their work environment, particularly pay and benefits, the characteristics of the job, supervision, fellow workers, and opportunities for advancement
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workaholic
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a person who is so involved in their work that they are addicted to working and unable to pursue other meaningful activities without feeling nervous, anxious, or guilty
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organizational commitment
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the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in an organization; three characteristics associated with it: normative commitment, affective commitment, and continuance commitment
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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a theory of motivation and personality, developed by Abraham Maslow, that is based on a hierarchy of five human needs: physiological, safety and security, social, ego and esteem, and self-actualization
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self actualization
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the highest-order need in Maslow's hierarchy that consists of the need for self-realization, continuous self development, and ever-increasing personal fulfillment; the tendency for individuals to seek fulfillment and to achieve all that they have the potential to achieve according to their genetic blueprint
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prepotency
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the idea that human needs are arranged in a hierarchical order and that higher-level needs do not emerge until lower-level needs are mostly satisfied
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learned needs
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needs that have been acquired by the events individuals have experiences within their culture. David McClelland studied three learned needs (achievement, affiliation, and power) and described how these needs were acquired and how they influenced behavior
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need for achievement
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a personality trait that reflects the importance of achievement and upward striving in a person's life. High-need achievers are characterized by a desire for personal responsibility, moderate levels of risk, and immediate feedback on their performance
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need for affiliation
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the need to associate with other people and obtain their friendship and approval
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need for power
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the desire to influence or control other people wither for the sake of personal satisfaction or for the benefit of society
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personal power
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a manifestation of the need for power in which individuals strive for dominance and control over other individuals
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social power
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a form of the need for power in which individuals attempt to satisfy their power needs by working within a group to achieve group and organizational goals
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aversive stimulus
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an unpleasant or punishing stimulus
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primary rewards
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rewards or outcomes that are desirable because of their association with physiological requirements or comforts especially food, water, sex, rest, and the removal of pain
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secondary rewards
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learned rewards or outcomes that have a powerful influence on behavior because they are self-administered. They can become increasingly important or valued and they do not become satiated or filled
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extrinsic rewards
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rewards, such as praise, bonuses, and awards that are administered by external agents
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intrinsic rewards
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rewards that are self-administered such as feelings of personal fulfillment or pride and craftsmanship from doing a good job
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reinforcement contingency
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the relationship between behavior and its consequences
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positive reinforcement contingency
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when positive reinforcement is presented after the correct response is made
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punishment contingency
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when negative reinforcement or punishment is associated with a specific response
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escape contingency
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when the person is required to make a correct response in order to terminate a negative condition that is already present in the environment
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avoidance contingency
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when a person is required to make a response to avoid an aversive stimulus
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extinction contingency
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when positive reinforcement is no longer associated with a response. In time the person stops making the response.
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continuous reward schedule
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a reward schedule that reinforces every correct response
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intermittent reward schedule
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a reward schedule that provides reinforcement for every nth response, where n is either a fixed or variable number
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fixed ratio schedule
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a reward schedule that rewards every nth response, where n is a fixed number
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variable ratio schedule
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an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which rewards are administered on the basis of a variable number of correct responses; lead to high rates of responding and are very resistant to extinction
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fixed interval schedule
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a reward schedule in which no reinforcement is given during a predetermined period of time, but after the end of that time interval, the first correct response is reinforced
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variable interval schedule
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a reinforcement schedule based on an interval of time; however, the length of the interval is not constant, but varies on a random basis
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behavior modification
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one of the earliest applications of reinforcement theories; the behavior of individuals is modified by analyzing the antecedents (environmental cues) and consequences of behavior and changing them as necessary
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organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)
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the application of reinforcement theories to organizational behavior
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behavioral events
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the basic unit of OB Mod, which consists of a specific act or response
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behavioral contingency management (BCM)
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the process of implementing an OB Mod program, in which behavioral events are specified and the conditions to achieve them are created
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expectancy theory
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a decision-making theory of motivation in which people decide what to do by subjectively estimating the probability of being able to perform an activity and whether that activity will be rewarding; comprised of three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
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expectancy (E→P)
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the subjective probability that one's performance depends on the amount of effort exerted
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instrumentality (P→R)
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the perceived correlation between performance levels and possible rewards; the association can be positive or negative
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valence
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the desirability or perceived worth of the various work outcomes, either positive or negative
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equity theory
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a motivation theory derived from social comparison theory in which people compare their input-output ratios with the input-output ratios of others
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job specialization
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simplifying a job by reducing the number of elements or activities performed by a job holder; normally involves more repetitive activities with short work cycles
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Scientific management
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the industrial engineering movement started by Frederick W. Taylor that uses time and motion studies to simplify work processes, and differential piece rates to improve productivity
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therblig
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a basic body movement as defined by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, two pioneers of scientific management
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ergonomics
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the application of technology and engineering to the way people are able to move and function while working; sometimes called biotechnology, it considers the mutual adjustment of people and machines and how to create greater comfort and efficiency
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job enlargement
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making a job larger by adding more of the same kinds of elements (horizontal expansion/loading)
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job enrichment
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changing a job to significantly increase the level of variety, autonomy, and responsibility; involves changes in the content of the job, rather than just adding more of the same activities
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Herzberg's hygiene-motivator theory
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a motivation theory that claims the factors in a work setting can be separated into two lists of motivator factors and hygiene factors. Motivators create satisfaction and motivation but do not create dissatisfaction, while hygienes can create dissatisfaction but do not create motivation or satisfaction
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hygienes
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job factors associated with the job context, such as pay, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policies
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motivators
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job factors associated with the content of a job such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and the possibility of growth
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job scope
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the characteristics or attributes associated with a job, as defined by its breadth and depth
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job breadth
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one of the dimensions of job scope that refers to the number of different activities performed by a job holder
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job depth
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one of the dimensions of job scope that refers to the degree of decision making or control the worker exercises over how the job is to be performed
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job characteristics model
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a model explaining how job enrichment programs change the core dimensions of the job, which in turn influence the psychological states of workers, which in turn influence the work outcomes
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motivating potential score (MPS)
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a score measuring the degree of job enrichment, obtained by algebraically combining the scores for the job's five core dimensions
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horizontal loading
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a form of job enrichment where the job is enlarged by combining additional tasks or elements into a job
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vertical loading
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a form of job enrichment in which higher-level administrative and supervisory responsibilities are included in the job to create greater levels of responsibility
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flextime
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an alternative work schedule that allows employees to set their own work hours, subject to specific constraints, such as requiring them to work a specific number of hours per day or per week, and to be at work during the core period
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core period
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the period of time during the workday when employees on flexible hours must be at work
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permanent part time
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a work arrangement permitting employees to work less than 35 hours per week; considered a permanent, rather than a temporary, part-time job
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job sharing
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a work arrangement whereby two workers split one job; each worker is responsible for his or her share of the job; they split the salary, the benefits, and the responsibilities
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compressed workweek
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an alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer days per week by working more hours on the days they work. The most typical compressed workweek schedule is four ten-hour days called the 4/40 plan
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telecommuting
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a work arrangement that allows employees to work from home using a computer, facsimile machine, email, and the Internet
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dependable role performance
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the requirement that employees do their assigned jobs dependably in terms of acceptable quantity and quality performance
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extra-role behaviors
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behaviors that are important for organizational effectiveness but are not typically considered part of an employee's formal job description, such as performing cooperative acts, making creative suggestions, and protecting the company; also called "spontaneous and innovative" or "above and beyond" behaviors
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ranking procedure
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arranging employees along a scale from best to lowest performer
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classification procedures
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classifying employees into set categories such as "outstanding," "excellent," "good," "average," "fair," and "poor"
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graphic rating scales
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a performance evaluation method that identifies various job dimensions and contains scales that are used to rate each employee on each dimension
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behaviorally anchored rating scales
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a performance evaluation method that uses scales that are anchored by observable behavior to reduce the subjectivity and bias associated with ordinary graphic rating scales
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descriptive essays
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a method of evaluating employee performance that requires evaluators to write free-form essays describing the employee's performance
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management by objectives (MBO)
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a philosophy of management that reflects a positive, proactive way of managing; MBO requires all employees to establish written, measurable objectives that can later be used to evaluate performance
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goal specificity
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a measure of how clearly defined and measurable the goals are
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goal difficulty
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a measure of the amount of effort required to achieve the goal
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goal acceptance
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the degree to which individuals accept a specific goal as a realistic target
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goal commitment
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the degree to which individuals are dedicated to reach the goals they have adoptedthe degree to which individuals are dedicated to reach the goals they have adopted
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360 degree appraisals
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a method of evaluating employees that involves gathering performance feedback from people above them, below them, and beside them on an organizational chart
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subordinate appraisals
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evaluating the performance of supervisors and managers by asking subordinates to evaluate their supervisor's performance; also called upward appraisals
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contributions appraisals
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a performance appraisal that focuses on what the person has contributed to the organization; this information is used for deciding pay increases and promotions
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personal development appraisals
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a performance evaluation that focuses on helping employees develop their skills and abilities and involves a collaborative discussion
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sandwich interview
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a format for a performance evaluation interview in which negative comments are sandwiched between positive comments at the beginning and end of the interview
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wage level decision
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how much does one company pay relative to other companies for the same jobs?
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wage structure decision
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how much does one job pay relative to other jobs within the same company? How does a company justify paying some jobs more than others?
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classification systems
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classify jobs, from simple to complex, by describing different levels of skill, effort, and responsibility, and a pay range is associated with each classification
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point method
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involves the evaluation of the job descriptions and the assignments of different points to different degrees of skill, effort, and responsibility; the pay for each job is determined by how many points it receives
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individual wage decisions
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how much money should people who all perform the same job receive? What criteria, such as seniority and performance, should be used to pay one person more than another?
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merit pay
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increases in an employee's basic wage level based on performance levels
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piece rate incentives
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an incentive system that pays employees a specific amount of money for each unit of work they produced
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skill based pay
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a pay system in which an employee's pay level is partially determined by the employee's skills as a means of motivating them to acquire greater skills
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pay for knowledge
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a pay system in which an employee's pay level is determined in part by how many knowledge tests the employee has successfully completed
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profit-sharing plan
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a program that allows employees to share in the profits of a company based on the profitability of the company and an allocation formula determining each employee's share
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cash versus deferred plans
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profit sharing money can be distributed as cash at the end of the period or placed in a deferred fund that grows tax-free until retirement
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Scanlon plan
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a company-wide incentive plan that distributes money to employees based on a fixed ratio of labor costs to revenue; as revenue increases through higher productivity and employee suggestions, the amount of money given increases proportional to the fixed ratio
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gainsharing
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a pay-for-performance plan that shares some of the same economic gains with employees according to improvements in specific performance matters
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grievance procedure
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a formal procedure that allows employees who feel they have been wronged to express their complaints and have them resolved without fear of retaliation
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discipline procedure
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a formal procedure for correcting employee misbehavior and protecting the interests of the company
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binding arbitration
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the final step in most grievance procedures; the dispute is submitted to a neutral third party who has the authority to decide the issue and both parties agree beforehand to accept the decision
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submission agreement
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a statement prepared by both management and union that described the dispute and the potential solutions the arbitrator can decide
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alternative dispute resolution
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alternative methods of resolving complaints between employers and employees without resorting to civil court proceedings, such as mediation, negotiation, binding arbitrations, and rent-a-judge services
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ombudsman
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an impartial person designated by an organization to hear complaints from members who feel powerless and unable to obtain a fair hearing on their own
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grievance committee
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a committee assigned to hear complaints from employees and recommend a solution, usually in nonunion companies
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open door policy
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outcomes that occur naturally without anyone having to make them happen
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fact finding
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gathering information about employee complaints and sharing it with people who can resolve them
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natural consequences
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outcomes that occur naturally without anyone having to make them happen
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logical consequences
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punishment that is logically related to the violation of a rule
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contrived consequences
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punishment that is imposed by an agent and not related directly to the misbehavior
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hot-stove rule
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a guideline for administering punishment in a way that is direct, impartial, and immediate
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due process
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telling people who have misbehaved that they did wrong and allowing them to defend themselves in an impartial setting
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just cause
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taking disciplinary action only for good and sufficient reason
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progressive discipline
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a formal discipline procedure that contains progressively severe penalties for misbehavior
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employment at will
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the right to terminate an employment relationship for any reason
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wrongful discharge
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terminating an employee for reasons that are judged to be unfair because it violates the law or public policy
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communicate the problem
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be direct, specific, and nonpunishing
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diagnose the problem
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determine whether the problem is caused by a lack of motivation or ability
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solving ability problems
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use joint problem solving to find an acceptable solution
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solving motivation problems
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to solve motivation problems, communicate consequences first to the task, second to others, and third to you as the supervisor. Finally, if compliance has not been reached, communicate imposed consequences
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emergent problems
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when the other person raises other difficulties, deal with them before proceeding
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