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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Organizational Behaviour
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is the study of how people behave in and around organizations.
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Organization
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A group of people working interdependently towards some shared purpose or goal.
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Organizational Effectiveness
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fit within their environment, internal subsystems are high-performance and well structured, learning organizations, satisfy the needs of stakeholders
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Open Systems
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organizations generate their sustenance through from their environment, and so the environment is affected by their output. Open as in a permeable relationship with the environment
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Internal Subsystems Effectiveness
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ratio of inputs to outcomes in the organizations transformation process, usually measured as productivity (input:output). Needs to be efficient, adaptive, and innovative.
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Organizational Learning
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- the organizations capacity to share, acquire, use and store valuable knowledge, aka knowledge management
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Intellectual Capital
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organizations stock of knowledge (human capital, structural capital, relationship capital)
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Organizational Unlearning
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the process of unlearning counterproductive knowledge or norms in an organization
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High performance work practices (HPWP)
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incorporation of several practices that leverage the potential of human capital. The value of human capital can be increased through the presence of specific practices, companies become more effective by investing in their human capital
These specific activities are synergetic, and must be bundled for the full effect. ( e.g. employee involvement, work autonomy) |
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Stakeholders
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Individuals, organizations or other entities that affect, or affected by the organizations objectives and actions.
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Values
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consistent beliefs that guide a persons preference for outcomes or courses of actions in a variety of situations. Increasingly important because of globalization, emphasis on ethics. Individual values, and shared values.
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Ethics
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Moral principles or values that determines whether actions are right or wrong, and outcomes are good or bad
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corporate social responsibility
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moral obligations to society, environment beyond the firms immediate financial interests or legal obligations as well as an organizations stakeholders
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Task Performance
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Goal directed behaviour under an individuals control that support organizational objectives.
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Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB)
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- Various forms of help and cooperation with others that support the organizations social and psychological context. Kind of going beyond what is required of your position in order to benefit the organization.
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Counterproductive Work Behaviour
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voluntary behaviour that has the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization
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Job Satisfaction
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persons evaluation of his or her job and work context. Determines many of the aforementioned behaviours, as well as willingness to stay within the organization
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Surface-level diversity
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Observable demographic or physiological differences in people (race, gender, age, ethnicity etc)
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Deep-level diversity
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differences in psychological characteristics of employees, such as personalities, beliefs, values and attitudes
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Triple bottom line philosophy
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economic, environmental, social
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Lewin’s Formula:
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: B= F(I and E) or Behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment.
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MARS Model of Individual Behavior :
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Motivation - the forces within a person that affect his or her
Direction - motivation is goal-directed Intensity - effort put into completing a task persistence - how long you drive towards your goals Ability - the natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task competencies - skills, aptitudes, abilities etc. which provide one with a comparative advantage of some kind Role Perceptions - employees understand their task and performance expectations, as well as the priorities of their tasks. When more than one method is available, solid role perceptions let an employee know which is preferred by the organization Situation Factors - Employee behaviour and performance also depends on how well the situation supports their task goals. Beyond an employees immediate control, originating for the external environment, however they can often be controlled by management to optimize the situation for their employees. |
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Personality
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consistent patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that characterize a person, along with the psychological process behind those
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characteristics -
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this implies that behaviour as always at least partly attributable to these individual consistencies and not the environment
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Five-Factor Model of Personality (CANOE)
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Five abstract dimensions representing most personality traits:
Conscientiousness - describes people who are careful, dependable and self-disciplined Agreeableness - courteous, good-natured, empathetic, and caring Neuroticism - high levels of anxiety, hostility, depression and self-consciousness Openness to experience - sensitive, flexible, creative and curious Extroversion - outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive 1-3 are the basis of “getting along”. 4-5 are the basis of “getting ahead” 1 & 3 are considered the most predictive of individual performance, and are both motivational components of personality The rest are better at predicting specific types of behaviour |
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Self Concept
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an individuals self-beliefs and self-evaluations. Complexity, consistency, and clarity are the three structural dimension of self-concept, they influence our adaptability and well-being.
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Self Efficacy -
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A person’s belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, correct role perceptions, and favorable situation (the MARS elements) to complete a task successfully
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Locus of Control
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A person’s general belief about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events. External locus of control indicates belief in fate/luck, while internal indicates belief in ability to influence own destiny.
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Social Identity Theory
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A theory that explains self-concept in terms of the persons identity and membership in various social groups (social identity)
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Values in the Workplace
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A persons self concept consists of a hierarchy of personal values. Values are consistent, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences. They are perceptions about good & bad, right & wrong.
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Types of Values
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Personal Values - values that exists within individuals
Shared Values - values shared among several others Espoused Values - one’s stated values (implies discrepancy) Enacted Values - one’s values represented through actions, dissonance with espoused values |
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Types of Values (Schwartz’s Values Circumplex) -
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Openness to Change - extent to which one is motivated to be innovative
-Self Direction -Stimulation Conservation - extent to which a person is motivated to maintain status quo -Clusters of conformity -Security -Tradition Self-enhancement - extent to which a person is motivated by self-interest -achievement -power Self-transcendence - extent to which a person is motivated to promote the welfare of others and nature -benevolence -universalism |
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Values Congruence -
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The extent to which one’s personal hierarchy of values is similar to that of their organization.
The similarity between espoused and enacted values. compatibility between an organizations dominant values with the prevailing values of the community or society in which it conducts business. Especially relevant with globalization |
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Individualism
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cross cultural value describing degree in which people in a culture emphasize independence and personal uniqueness
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Collectivism
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degree to which people in a culture emphasize duty to groups and to group harmony
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Power Distance
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degree to which people accept unequal distribution of power or influence
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Uncertainty Avoidance
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degree to which people tolerate or feel threatened by ambiguity or uncertainty
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Achievement nurturing orientation
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degree to which people emphasize competitive vs cooperative behaviour
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Three ethical principles
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Utilitarianism - The greatest good for the greatest number of people. However, it is difficult to weigh cost/benefit of many decisions
Individual rights - Reflects the belief that everyone has entitlements to act a certain way. Individuals’ rights may conflict with each other though. Distributive Justice - Those who are similar should receive similar benefits/burdens, those who are different should receive different benefits/burdens based on their dissimilarity. It is difficult to determine a degree of similarity, or relevant factors |
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Moral Intensity
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The degree to which a decision requires the application of ethical principles
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Ethical Sensitivity
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A personal characteristic that enables a person to determine the relative importance of an ethical issue. Increased by a set of shared values known by all employees
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Perception
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The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. Deciding which information we notice, how to categorize it, and how to interpret it within the framework of our existing knowledge
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Selective Attention
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The process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information. It is influenced by characteristics of the person or object being perceived - particularly its size, intensity, motion, repetition and novelty. Also influenced by the perceivers characteristics.
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Categorical Thinking -
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organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory. this information is generally interpreted and chosen (selectively) just as quickly and unconsciously as we organize it.
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Mental Models
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Visual or relational images in our mind representing the external world. These are basically expectations or predictions that we use to make sense of our environment
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Social Identity and Stereotyping -
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categorization - categorizing people into distinct groups assigns a certain social identity to that individual
homogenization - we presume that those within a given group are similar to each other to simplify the comparison process (a kind of prejudice) Differentiation - social identity fulfills an inherent need to have a distinct and positive self-concept. We do this by differentiation groups by assigning more favorable characteristics to people in our groups that those in other groups. This creates an “other” like relationship |
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Stereotyping -
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The process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category.
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Attribution process
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the process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused mainly by the person or the environment. It is determined by observing consistency, distinctiveness and consensus of the behaviour. If these elements of the behaviour occur frequently, it is likely an internal attribution.
Internal Attribution - may be a result of ability or motivation. External Attribution - may be a result of resources, other people, or luck. |
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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This is the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behaviour, without first applying the proper attribution process.
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Self-serving bias
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Another type of attribution error, in which one attributes favorable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
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Self-Fulfilling prophecy
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an organization should develop a positive but realistic expectation toward all employees, or a positive organizational behaviour - focusing on the positive rather than the negative.
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Halo Effect
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general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colors our perception of that person
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Primacy Effect
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quickly form an opinion about someone based on a first impression
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Recency Effect
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the most recent information dominates our perception of someone
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False Consensus Effect
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We overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own.
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Improving Perceptions
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the use of awareness of perceptual bias, self-awareness, and meaningful interaction in order to improve our perceptions of others.
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The Johari Window
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A model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden and unknown areas.
Open area - information about you that is known both to you and to others. Blind area- information that is known to others but not to you Hidden area - information known to you but not to others Unknown area - information not known to you or to others The main objective is to increase the size of the open area so that you and your colleagues are aware of your perceptual limitations or bias’s. This is accomplished through disclosure of values, beliefs or other information, as well as feedback about your behaviours. This combination also may reveal parts of the hidden area. |
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Empathy
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A person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others
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Learning -
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A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a reult of a person’s interaction with the environment
-three perspectives of learning tacit and explicit knowledge reinforcement social learning direct experience |
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Tacit Knowledge
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Knowledge embedded in our actions and ways of thinking, and transmitted only through observation and experience - it is not documented
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Explicit Knowledge
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specific information that can be documented, recorded or easily transmitted
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Behaviour Modification
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A theory that explains learning in terms of antecedents and consequences of behaviour. It is the view that learning is completely dependent on the environment - we simply learn by altering our behaviours to maximize positive and minimize negative consequences
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The ABC’s of Behaviour Modification
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to change Behaviour by managing its Antecedents and Consequences
Antecedents - events preceding the behaviour, informing individuals of the expected consequences of that behaviour - it is a cue, not a cause Consequences - events that follow a particular behaviour that influences its future occurrence |
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Four types of consequences (contingencies of reinforcement)
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Positive reinforcement - the introduction of a consequence increases the frequency of a behaviour
punishment - a consequence that decreases the frequency of a behaviour Negative reinforcement - increases the frequency of a behaviour by removing a consequence Extinction - a behaviour decreases in frequency because no consequence follows it Continuous reinforcement - providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behaviour. This is the most effective method Variable Ratio Schedule - behaviour is reinforced after a variable number of times |
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Social Learning Theory
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a theory stating that much learning occurs by observing others ad then modeling behaviours that lead to favorable outcomes and avoiding those that lead to punishing consequences
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Behaviour modeling
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- people learn by observing behaviours of a role model, mimicking those behaviours. Especially useful for tacit knowledge
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Learning behaviour consequence
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- learning the consequences of behaviour through logic and observation, not just direct experience
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Self-Reinforcement
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when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn't take it until completing a self-set goal. Basically rewarding yourself for accomplishing a self-set goal
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Learning Trough Experience
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concrete experience - sensory and emotional engagement to learn
reflective observation - listening, watching, recording, and elaborating on the experience abstract conceptualization - develop concepts and integrate observations into logically sound theories active experimentation - we test the previous three stages |
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Learning Orientation
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- the extent to which an individual or organization supports knowledge management, especially opportunities to acquire knowledge through experience and experimentation
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Organizational Learning (knowledge management)
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organizations capacity to acquire, share, store, and use knowledge.
Knowledge acquisition - extracting knowledge from insight, or from the external environment. This could be from new employees, acquired companies, or experimentation Knowledge Sharing - ability to distribute knowledge throughout the organization, this also is influenced by social learning and behaviour modification Knowledge Use - applying knowledge in such a way to add value to the organization and its stakeholders |
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Emotions
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physiological, psychological, and behavioural episodes experienced toward an object, person or event that create a state of readiness. They are generally immediate responses directed towards a specific thing. Emotions generate a global evaluation that something is good or bad, helpful or harmful etc.
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Beliefs -
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established perceptions about the attitude object: what you believe to be true. They are perceived facts that you acquire from past experience and learning
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Cognitive Dissonance
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- A state of anxiety that occurs when an individual’s beliefs, feelings and behaviors are inconsistent with one another
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Emotional Labor
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effort, planning and control required to express organizational desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Conceal frustration with a customer, display compassion to an ill patient etc. There are norms that say we need to display and hide certain emotions
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Emotional Dissonance
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- the conflict between required and true emotions.
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Emotional Intelligence -
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self awareness - better ability to be conscious of own emotional information
self-management - involves an inner conversation that manages our behaviour social awareness - all about empathy, relationship management - resolving conflict, inspiring, supporting teamwork, etc. |
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Exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN Model) -
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Exit - usually follows “shock events” that generate strong emotions
Voice - addressing the problem instead of escaping it Loyalty - “suffer in silence” Neglect - a passive activity with negative consequences for the organization |
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Organizational commitment
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Justice & Support - increases loyalty
Shared Values - increases motivation to stay with the organization Trust - reciprocal activity: to receive trust, you must demonstrate trust Organizational comprehension - influences a persons identification with an organization Employee involvement - increases commitment to organization, strengthens social identity |
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Continuance commitment
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An employees calculative commitment to an organization. They are only motivated to stay because to leave would be too costly
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Stress -
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remove the stressor - assign jobs that match skills and preferences, have a complaint system and corrective action against harassment, give employees more control over their work process, manage life/work balance (flexible schedule, job sharing, telecommuting, etc)
withdraw from the stressor - taking breaks, days off, vacations, sabbaticals change stress perceptions - strengthen employees’ confidence and self-esteem so that challenges are not perceived as threatening. Humor also helps control stress consequences - ensure employees maintain healthy lifestyles. On-site gym, subsidized fitness, meditation, nutrition, etc. receives social support - emotional support / informational support to buffer the stress. This improves resilience, optimism and self confidence. May help remove the stressor |
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General adaptation syndrome -
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an automatic defense to help us cope with stress.
alarm reaction- a threat or challenge is presented, energy and coping effectiveness are reduced resistance - body produces more energy to help cope with the stress, immune system is weakened exhaustion - failure to remove the source of the stress, or remove oneself from the stressful situation, results in being overwhelmed with the stress, which is bad |
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Motivation
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the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behaviour in the workplace
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Drives -
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These primary needs are neural states that energize individuals to correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium. They are the prime movers of behaviour by activating emotions, which put us in a state of readiness to act.
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Needs -
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Goal directed forces that people experience, are shaped by the individual self-concept, social norms, and past experience.
Extrinsic - satisfied by receiving something from someone else Intrinsic - satisfied by receiving something from yourself |
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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy theory
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- the lowest needs are initially the most important, but higher needs become more important as the lower needs are satisfied. Lacks research support. Model assumes everyone has the same hierarchy.
physiological safety belongingness/love esteem self-actualization |
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Positive organizational behaviour
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Focusing on the positive rather than the negative in order to improve self-concept, and self-efficacy
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ERG theory
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reorganizes maslow’s hierarchy, existence > relatedness > growth. also describes how people regress down the hierarch when they fail to meet their needs. Neither theory is scientifically sound, and it is impossible to make such generalizations considering how different individuals are
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Learned needs theory
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needs can be strengthened through learning.
need for achievement - value competition of excellence need for power - want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintain their leadership positions need for affiliation - desire approval from others, and conform to their wishes and expectations, avoid conflict and confrontation |
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Four-drive theory
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suggests everyone has four innate drives, which activate emotions that we regulate through skill set that considers social norms, past experience and personal values. Suggests individual jobs should fulfill all of these drives
drive to acquire - to seek, take, control, retain objects and personal experiences. beyond physiological, includes enhancing self-concept, it is the foundation of competition and the basis for our need for esteem drive to bond - to form social relationships, develop mutual caring commitments with others. Explains social identity by aligning self-image with various social groups, and may explain why people who lack social contact are more prone to serious health problems. drive to learn - to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand the environment and ourselves. when observing something that is inconsistent with current knowledge, tension motivates us to close the information gap. drive to defend - to protect ourselves physically and socially. fight-or-flight response. extends to defending our relationships, acquisitions and belief systems |
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Expectancy Theory
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suggests that work effort is determined by the perception that
E-to-P expectancy: effort will result in a particular level of performance. This increased by improving the employee’s ability and confidence to perform the job. P-to-O expectancy: the perception that a specific behaviour or performance level will lead to specific outcomes. This increases by measuring performance accurately, distributing higher rewards to better performers, and showing employees that rewards are performance-based. Outcome valance: the valances that the person feels for those outcomes. These increase by finding out what employees want and using these resources as rewards |
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Theory X
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- management view that assumes workers dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs. Assumes people are lazy, irresponsible and don’t like to work, people need close supervision and threats to be motivated
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Theory Y
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assumes that workers like to work, and that under proper conditions, employees will seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Assumes people can be self-motivated, people enjoy work, and people are creative and ingenious if given a chance to perform
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Theory Z -
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a management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making
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Equity theory
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outcome/input ratio
comparison other equity evaluation consequences of inequitably |
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Inequity and employee motivation
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reduce our inputs
increase our outcomes increase the comparison other’s inputs reduce comparison other’s outcomes change our perceptions change the comparison other |
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Teams -
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- groups of two or more people who interact and influence each other, are mutually accountable for achieving common goals associated with organizational objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization.
Advantages- teams tend to make better decisions, support the knowledge management process (acquiring, sharing, storing, using), and are generally more motivated Disadvantages - Teams can sometimes result in process losses and social loafing, resulting in decreased performance |
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Informal groups
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- People join informal groups for four reasons:
people have an innate drive to bond group membership is an inherent ingredient in a person’s self-image some personal goals are accomplished better in groups individuals are comforted in stressful situations by the mere presence of other people |
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Process losses
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the resulting productivity losses when teams perform poorly, because of conflict, too much cohesion, social loafing, team maintenance etc
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Brooke’s Law (mythical man-month) -
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states that adding more people to a late software project will only make it later
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Social Loafing
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the tendency for people to exert less effort and perform at a lower level when working in teams rather than working alone.
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Model of Team effectiveness
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The teams ability to achieve its objectives, fulfill the needs of its members, and maintain its survival. Teams are better suited for complex work, and where tasks among employees have high interdependence. Size is important, not too big, not too small. Effective teams are composed of people with competencies and motivation to perform tasks in a team environment.
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Kinds of Team Make Ups
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Heterogeneous - teams that have different backgrounds, or a deep-level diversity are better at accomplishing certain tasks, where unique problem solving may be required, or creativity is required. More conflict, slower team development, better knowledge and resources for complex tasks, higher potential for support outside of the team.
Homogeneous - teams that have very similar members, they may be more effective at other tasks where everyone must be on the same page, and where groupthink is more highly valued, possibly for highly technical tasks. Higher satisfaction, less conflict, quick team development, more efficient coordination, perform simple, or single-faceted tasks better |
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Team Development -
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Performing - task oriented, committed, efficient coordination, high cooperation and trust, conflicts quickly resolved
Norming - roles established, team objectives agreed, common mental modes form, cohesion develops Storming - conflict with proactive behaviour, compete for team roles, influence goals and means, establish norms and standards Forming - discover expectations, evaluate value of membership, defer to existing authority, test boundaries of behaviour |
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Norms -
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norms are basically the behavioural expectations that evolve within a team or organization, they are informal rules and help regulate the behaviour of their members. Norms form from:
Beliefs/values members bring to the team -Formal and Informal leaders,Organization Initial team experiences Explicit statements Critical events in the team’s history Reinforced behaviors |
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Team Cohesion
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the degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members.
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Self Directed Teams
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teams that complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks, and they have substantial autonomy over the execution of their tasks. SDT’s potentially increase both productivity and job satisfaction, but only when the team is responsible for an entire work process, has sufficient autonomy to organize and coordinate their work, and when the technology support coordinating and communicating among team members and increases job enrichment.
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Virtual Teams
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teams who work across space, time, and organizational boundaries, using technology to share information and achieve organizational tasks. More common because of globalization
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Production Blocking
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a time constraint in which only one person may speak at a time, this undermines idea generation, makes it difficult to concentrate on own ideas, and some ideas are fleeting and may be lost while waiting
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Groupthink
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tendency to come to a consensus with little effort because of how similar the values, goals, and ideas of the team members are. Makes for good team cohesion and little conflict, and so decision quality is often sacrificed
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Constructive Conflict
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conflict that focuses on the task rather than the individual, and is productive.
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Nominal group technique
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team members first work on a problem individually, then share their ideas with the group and clarify, and then rank or prioritize the generated ideas individually. Generally a low potential for conflict, but also limited by production blocking and evaluation apprehension
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Sensing Types
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Receive information by way of the five senses
Enjoy and live for the present Have a realistic or practical orientation Appreciate facts, details, specifics Appreciate communication that is literal and concrete Focus on specific parts or pieces S’s may seem materialistic and literal-minded to N’s |
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Intuitive Types:
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Process information by way of “insight” or a “sixth sense”
Anticipate, live for the future Have an imaginative or theoretical orientation Appreciate meaning, big picture and patterns Appreciate communication that is figurative and abstract Focus on patterns or relationships N’s may seem fickle or impractical to S’s |
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Judging Types (Schedulers):
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Have a concrete sense of time
Like closure Like planning, organizing, and executing the plan Break big tasks down in to concrete steps Like making decisions Make decisions on a time deadline Lifestyle is decisive, planned, orderly |
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Perceiving Types (Probers)
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Have a general sense of time
Dislike closure Like spontaneity, remaining open to possibilities Like assimilating as much information as possible Prefer to postpone decision making until information is known Make decisions on an event deadline Lifestyle is flexible, adaptable and spontaneous. |
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Extroverts
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Tend to have broader interests
May have multiple friendships Rely on the environment for stimulation and guidance Think best when talking with people Prefer to act, THEN (maybe) reflect Tend to be easy to get to know Tend to have an action-oriented, sometimes impulsive way of meeting life Tend to enjoy social situations & relationships E’s may seem shallow to I’s |
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Introverts
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May have close relationships
Tend to have deeper interests Rely on enduring concepts more than on transitory external events Think best alone -- share when ideas are clear Prefer to reflect, THEN (maybe) act Tend to be hard to get to know Tend to have a thoughtful, contemplative approach to meeting life I’s may seem withdrawn to E’s |
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Hawthorne Studies
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people perform better when they are being observed, compelled to meet and exceed expectations, supports theory y. Performance improved regardless of changes in lighting. This displayed a social aspect of motivation that was previously unknown.
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Building the emotional intelligence of groups
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developed through norms (expectations, or informal rules) that promote the support, awareness, and regulation of emotions within and outside of the team
promote feedback, open the Johari window, understand the values, motivations and attitudes of team members mutual trust, group identity, and group efficacy are the foundation of true cooperation emotional intelligence is not a necessary evil, but a deliberate action and reaction |
