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58 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
A content
theory of motivation |
specifies those human needs which activate behaviours
aimed at need reduction. Therefore, a content theory of motivation answers the question: ‘What specific needs cause motivation?’ |
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A process theory
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explains how behaviour is stimulated, directed, sustained, or stopped. Process
theories inject the importance of human perceptions of environments in explaining motivation. The process theories of motivation show how human beings weigh the importance (value) of incentives and how intention (motivation) occurs |
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List content theories
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Maslow, Herzberg
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List Process theories
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Equity theory, Expectancy
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Maslow hierarchy
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physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, self actualization
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Self-actualisation
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5th The need to reach one’s fullest
potential An engineer uses all of his design skills to create a new subcomponent |
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Esteem
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4th Maslow need- The need to feel good about oneself
and one’s abilities; and to be respected by others and to receive their approval Company promotes deserving managers and recognises employees with awards |
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Belongingness
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3rd The need to experience social interaction,
friendship and love Having and sustaining good relations with co-workers, supervisors, being a member of a cohesive work team and being a part of social functions at work |
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Safety
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Maslow 2nd Need - for security, stability and a
safe work environment Having good job benefits, safe working area and job security |
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Physiological
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1st Food, water, shelter and clothing
to ensure survival Guaranteed minimum pay level that is sufficient to provide basic necessities |
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6 notes on Maslow hierarchy
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• A satisfied need ceases to motivate behavior at that need level.
• Unsatisfied employee needs lead to undesirable outcomes at work. Unsatisfied needs create perceived inequity for employees. When this condition persists employee’s job satisfaction decreases. • People are assumed to have a need to grow and move up the need hierarchy. All humans self-actualize in some way, however not everyone does it at work. • Needs are not usually satisfied completely. Individuals usually can satisfy more, lower order needs than higher order. In organizations the lower order needs are generally satisfied with money, the higher order ones by social interactions and the design of meaningful jobs. • Unless physiological needs are satisfied, higher order needs cannot come into play. • As employees move through their careers , their needs pattern shifts to higher order needs |
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Hygienes
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are contextual factors that, if not present, lead to the impoverishment of the employee’s job. Employees experience job frustration and stress if their jobs have few hygienes
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Improve hygiene factors and
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Employees might experience short increases in job satisfaction hygiene factors are improved, but will take them for granted again after a relatively short period of time
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What happens when hygienes are removed?
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job satisfaction plunges
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Motivators
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are factors that raise job satisfaction and performance in the long run. They are related to the employee-job interaction and are job-centered characteristics.
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Describe the focus differences of Maslow and Herzberg
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Herzberg is concerned with job and organizational sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Maslow focuses on human needs which encompass a variety of life situations, one of which is work. Herzberg’s model is a specific application of Maslow’s hierarchy to work.
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Negative inequity
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(Equity Theory) perceived when the employee feels that he receives relatively fewer rewards for his effort that others.
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Positive inequity
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perceived when an employee feels that he receives relatively more rewards for his efforts that others.
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To restore equity an employee might:
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1. Change work inputs and reduce performance efforts to eliminate negative inequity
2. Change the outcomes received (e.g. ask for more responsibility to reduce positive inequity) 3. Exit the circumstance (e.g. leave job) 4. Change the people that are used for comparison 5. Mentally distort or alter the comparison 6. Take a decision to alter the inputs or outcomes of the comparison ‘other’ (e.g. get the other to work less hard) |
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Expectancy Theory
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Behavior is always purposeful and goal directed. Behavior must be understood in terms of the probabilities that a certain behavior will lead to outcomes valued by the individual.
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Valence
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defined as the personal attractiveness of different outcomes. If an outcome has a high personal valence, an individual is attracted to behaviors that make that outcome more likely.Expectancy Theory
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First-level outcomes
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(Expectancy Theory) results of expending effort in some way (e.g. job performance, leaving a position) and are important for organizations
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Second-level outcomes
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(Expectancy Theory) - the result of achieving (or not achieving) the first level outcomes (e.g. getting a promotion, receiving recognition). Employees assign valence to each type of outcome.
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Instrumentality
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Expectancy theory - the personal believe that first-level outcomes lead to second-level outcomes.
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Expectancy
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(Expectancy theory)-is the subjective belief that a given level of effort will lead to a first level outcome on the job.
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Behavior Modification (B Mod) posits
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that behavior is a function of its consequences.
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Operant Conditioning
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BMod-Reinforcement which modifies behavior through it’s consequences
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Law of effect
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BMod-Tendency of an individual (operant) to repeat behaviors that cause favorable consequences and not to repeat behaviors that cause unfavorable consequences
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Positive/negative reinforcers
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BMod-Favorable/unfavorable or pleasant/unpleasant consequences
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Positive reinforcement
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Strengthening a behavior by occurrence of a positive consequence
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Negative reinforcement
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BMod-Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence
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Punishment
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Weakening a behavior by occurrence of an unpleasant consequence
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Extinction
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Weakening a behavior with the occurrence of a neutral consequence or removal of a positive consequence
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Behavioral shaping
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BMod-Structuring of reinforcements, punishment, and extinction to achieve successively closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Stretching the ratio
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BMOD-Lowering the rate of reinforcements accompanying the behavior
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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continuous, partial
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Continuous
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BMod schedule of reinforcement- Consequence follows directly after each response
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Partial
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BMod-Consequence does not follow every response
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Partial reinforcement schedules
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Fixed ratio (FR)Variable Ratio (VR)Fixed Interval (FI)Variable Interval (VI)
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Fixed ratio (FR)
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fixed number of behaviors must occur before reinforcement occurs
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Variable Ratio (VR)
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A variable number of behaviors (around some average number) must occur before reinforcement
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Fixed Interval (FI)
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After a given amount of time has elapsed, reinforcement occurs
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Variable Interval (VI)
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After a variable amount of time (varying around some average time) has elapsed, reinforcement occurs.
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what rewards should not be stretched?
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financial...breeds distrust of management
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BMod Supporters believe (OMIF)
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• It focuses on observable behavior instead of intangible individual differences
• No manipulation occurs when employees participate in the behavior modification • It improves employees instrumentalities • Employees receive higher quality feedback about their performance |
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Bmod Opponents believe (RDMC)
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• It undermines employees respect and dignity
• It makes organizations more manipulative and exploitative • It makes employees dull an de-humanized extensions of the machines that they operate • It oversimplifies work behavior and erodes employee creativity |
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Managers do not like to talk about punishment because it implies that:
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1. they have hired the wrong employee
2. the work environment they help create is less than ideal 3. they and their organization treat their employees badly |
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Reasons for not using punishment:
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1. For it to be effective managers must closely watch employee’s behavior
2. Punishment does not eliminate unwanted behavior, but just suppresses it temporarily until the punisher is removed. 3. Employees become anxious, fearful, less creative, hostile and may reject delegated responsibility |
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Alternatives to using punishment:
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(WERP)
• Use of Extinction • Re-engineer the work environment so that undesirable behavior can not occur • Reward behavior which is physically incompatible with undesired behavior (e.g. reward employees for tidy workplaces) • Be patient and allow time for undesirable behavior to disappear |
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Punishment should be used (RIPFIRE)
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rapid, intense, equitable, informative, private and focused, not followed by rewards
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Punishment should be Rapid because:
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Undesirable behavior must be prevented from becoming a habit of the employee
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Intense:
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Punishment should be intense and immediate, leaving no question about the undesirability of the behavior
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Equitable
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BMod-Punishment must be equitable across people and infractions. Match the punishment to the infraction
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Informative:
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Punishment must have informative value: information on why behavior is undesirable, how to correct behavior, consequences of further infractions
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Private and focused:
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The employee’s self-esteem should remain intact. He should remember the behavior to correct instead of how he was mistreated.
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Not followed by rewards
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Punishment should not be followed by non-contingent rewards (e.g. lunch to alleviate the supervisor’s guilt)
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Conditions that should be met before installing a B Mod program:
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• Moderate to high trust between employees affected and their supervisors exists.
• Employee must believe that good workplace hygiene exists. • Employee must have control over pace of work (i.e. no machine paced work). • Employee ability can not be the cause of the problem. • Employees understand successful performance behaviors that they can measure and record. • Employees must get regular feedback about their progress towards performance goals • Supervisors must be trained and committed to the B Mod program so that they understand the underlying principles |
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8 Steps to setting up a B Mod program:
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1. Conduct a job analysis to ensure understanding of job responsibilities
2. Define performance behaviors and set performance goals 3. Conduct a baseline audit to identify the rate of correct performance 4. Select powerful and abundant reinforcers to reward excellent performance 5. Use continuous reinforcement to encourage new performance behaviors 6. Practice behavioral shaping to obtain closer and close approximations to the desired behaviors 7. Establish desired behaviors by adding new positive reinforcers which employees value 8. Review and evaluate the program to identify and measure target goals such as cost reduction, employee attendance, safety and improved productivity. |