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55 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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learning
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reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience. The more they do this, the more they can bring to the table. It has a significant impact on decision making.
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decision making
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refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate and sound decisions.
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Satisfactory work performance
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takes 3 months to a year to obtain.
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expertise
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refers to the knowledge and skills that distinguish experts and novices and less experienced people. The difference is almost always a function of learning and NOT a higher intelligence or innate differences.
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explicit knowledge
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the kind of information you're likely to think about when you picture someone sitting down at a desk to learn. You can acquire this by reading from a text or relay it by writing it down.
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tacit knowledge
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the kind of information that employees can typically learn only through experience. It's not easily communicated, and occurs mostly through practice. Up to 90% of learning in the workplace happens this way. Arguably the single most important strategic asset a company can possess.
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operant conditioning
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various methods of reinforcement to induce desirable or reduce undesirable behaviors by their employees. B.F. Skinner was the first to pioneer the notion that our behavior and the consequences that follow it help mold our behavior.
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contingencies of reinforcement
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four specific consequences that are typically used by organizations to modify employee behavior.
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positive reinforcement
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occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. Perhaps the most common type of reinforcement and the type we think of when an employee receives some type of "reward". Examples: increased pay, promotions, praise, and public recognition.
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negative reinforcement
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occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior. Example: When a manager removes an undesired responsibility because you perform another task very well. When you do something specifically so that you won't get yelled at.
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Punishment
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occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior. It's exactly what it sounds like. Something you don't want happens when you do something an organization doesn't like.
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Extinction
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occurs when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior. The use of this to reinforce behavior can be purposeful or accidental. Example: Discontinuing the reaction an employee gets (laughs, attention, etc) when they act inappropriately. Eventually they stop acting that way.
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schedules of reinforcement
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types of reinforcement schedules which include continuous, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio.
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continuous reinforcement schedule
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the simplest schedule type that happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. For most jobs this is impractical. Example: praising an employee every time they do something you like. (highly effective but difficult to maintain).
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fixed interval schedule
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the schedule type that is the most common. It occurs when workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same. Example: Receiving a paycheck. (Average level of effectiveness).
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variable interval schedule
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a schedule type designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in time. Example: a supervisor conducting a walkthrough at random times several times a day. Because they don't know when they'll be checked up on, employees are more likely to keep up their productivity. (moderately high level of effectiveness).
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fixed ratio schedule
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a schedule type which reinforces behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited. Example: Manufacturing plants paying workers every time the make "x" amount of units. (Highly effective).
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variable ratio schedule
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a schedule type which rewards people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors. Example: car salesmen have to "sell" to each potential buyer. They don't know how many times they will have to pull their "best salesmanship" before they get a sale. Because of this, they continue to do their jobs hoping for a sale even when every try doesn't result in one. (VERY highly effective).
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social learning theory
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a theory that argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observations of others. Arguably the primary way employees gain knowledge in organizations.
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behavioral modeling
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When employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behavior. Many processes must take place for this to happen successfully: Attentional process, retention process, production process, and reinforcement. Kellogg's CEO was given the opportunity to do this for two years before assuming his position at the company.
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learning orientation
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where building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence. People like this like working on new kinds of tasks, even if they fail during their early experiences, and see failure in positive terms. Improves self-confidence.
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performance-prove orientation
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focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorably of them. Tend to work mainly on tasks they are really good at, and views failure in negative terms.
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performance-avoid orientation
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focus on demonstrating their competence so that other will not think poorly of them. Tend to work mainly on tasks that they are really good at, and views failure in negative terms.
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programmed decisions
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decisions that become somewhat automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken. Experts go through this a lot, and respond by identifying the problem as something they've dealt with before.
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intuition
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emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations. Experts have a lot of this, but because of their tacit knowledge, they can't put into words why they knew a problem existed, why a solution will work, or how they accomplished a task... they just "know".
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crisis situation
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a change - whether sudden or evolving - that results in an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately. For businesses, this is anything with the potential to cause sudden and serious damage to employees, reputation, or bottom line.
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nonprogrammed decision
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when employees are faced with a situation that is new, complex, and not recognized.
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rational decision making
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a step-by-step approach to making decisions that maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives.
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bounded rationality
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the notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process al available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision.
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satisficing
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when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered.
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selective perception
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the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations.
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projection bias
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when people believe that others think, feel, and act the same way they do and force their own thoughts, attitudes, and motives onto other people. This causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision.
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social identity theory
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holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships.
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stereotype
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when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group. Many companies discourage this because it can lead to faulty generalizations and illegal discrimination.
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heuristics
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simple, efficient, rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily. In general, they are not bad, and generally lead to correct decisions. But they can also lead to bias and inaccurate decisions.
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availability bias
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the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier to recall.
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fundamental attribution error
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argues that people have a tendency to judge others' behaviors as due to internal factors. This error suggests that you would likely judge Joe as having low motivation, poor organizational skills, or some other negative internal attribute if he showed up late, and not because there was an accident that caused traffic.
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self-serving bias
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occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors. It turns out that we're less harsh when judging ourselves.
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consensus
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A decision making concept provoking the question: Did others act the same way under similar circumstances? For Example, did others arrive late on the same day?
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distinctiveness
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A decision making concept provoking the question: Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? For Example, is "Joe" responsible when it comes to personal appointments, not just work appointments?
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consistency
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A decision making concept provoking the question: Does this person always do this when performing this task? For Example, has "Joe" arrived late to work before?
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anchoring
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A decision making bias where the tendency is to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information when making decisions even when the anchor might be unreliable or irrelevant. Example: people are asked to write down the last two numbers of their SS # and then bid on a bottle of wine. Those with higher SS#'s bid more than those with lows #'s.
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framing
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A decision making bias where the tendency is to make different decisions based on how the question or situation is framed. Example: Giving "discounts" for paying cash for gas goes over better than having a "fee" for using credit cards.
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representativeness
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A decision making bias where the tendency is to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a similar event and assuming it will be similar. Example: the "Gambler's fallacy"... if heads came up for the last 10 flips, people incorrectly assume a tails will be more likely to come up next. Or, since a couple had five girls, there's a higher chance the next one will be a boy.
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contrast
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A decision making bias where the tendency is to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near to them. Example: After removing your hand from hot water, a cup of water at room temperature would feel "cool". After removing your hand from ice cold water, the same cup would feel "warm".
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recency
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A decision making bias where the tendency is to weigh recent events more than earlier events. Example: a manager's tendency to weight performance reviews based on what's happened in the last month compared to what's happened in the last year.
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escalation of commitment
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refers to the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action. The expression "throwing good money after bad" captures this common decision making error. People may feel obligated, or don't want to admit they made a mistake, or feel they are "so close" to completion that they continue to commit to the failing plan. Ex: United Airlines and their disastrous baggage transportation system at the Denver airport.
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training
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a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior.
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knowledge transfer
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when more experienced workers pass along explicit and/or tacit information to less experienced workers.
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behavior modeling training
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A training opportunity provided to employees to observe and learn from those in the company with significant amounts of tacit knowledge. Ex: Raytheon's "Leave-a-Legacy" program linking employees holding vital knowledge to high-potential individuals.
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communities of practice
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groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time. Ex: Teachers joining PLC's (Professional Learning Communities).
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transfer of training
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occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job. Can be fostered if organizations create a climate of transfer.
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climate of transfer
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an environment that can support the use of new skills. Manager support, peer support, and opportunities to use the new knowledge and skills improves this.
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The effect of Learning on Job Performance
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Has a moderate positive correlation (~.3), employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have higher levels of Task Performance. Little is known about how knowledge and skills effect citizenship behavior or counterproductive behavior.
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The effect of Learning on Organizational Commitment
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Has a weak positive correlation (~.1), employees who gain more knowledge and skills are slightly more likely to have higher Affective Commitment. Little is known about the relationship between knowledge and skills on Continuance Commitment or Normative Commitment.
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