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228 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Nose functions (3)
Air is warmed, humidified, filtered
Smallest particles are trapped in nose by
alveolar macrophages at the turbinates (turbulent air)
How do bronchi compare to alveolar sacs?
Bronchi = most diameter
Alveolar sacs = most area per sq cm
no air exchange occurs at the
conducting zone
air exchange occurs in the
respiratory zone
pseudostratified ciliated columnars and simple ciliated columnars
Epithelial - beat toward pharynx to clear particles
mucous goblet cells
epithelial - trap particles
curved 5/6 anterior portion and the % decreases as go down airway
Cartilage! prevent airway collapse
make up wall in all areas not made of cartilage
Smooth muscle, baby. Controls the size of the opening (of airway0
simple squamous
capillary endothelial cells allow gas exchange in to blood
Type I simple squamous
Alveoli epithelial Type I are 90% of the surface area.
GAS EXCHANGE
Type II simple squamous
Alveoli epithelial Type II are 10% of surface area.
SURFACTANT
connective tissue
fibroblasts = support
ingest small particles
alveolar macrophages
secrete Histamine and Leukotrienes
alveolar macrophages
neurotransmitters SYMPATHETIC
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
PARASYMPATHETIC neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
receptors for sympathetic NE and Ep
Beta adrenergic (sympathetic)
receptors for parasympathetic Ach
Lung parenchyma
function of sympathetic respiratory system (Ep, NE & beta adrenergic receptors)
dilation!! of bronchial tree
role of parasympathetic nervous for respiratory system (Ach, lung parenchymal receptors)
constriction
The nerve supply to respiratory is ____________ that of blood vessels.
opposite
Processes of Respiratory system (5)
Ventilation (air in-out), Diffusion of O2 & CO2 b/w alveoli and blood, Transport of same in blood/fluid, Regulation of ventilation (brain)
The more liquid increases, the more ___________ increases.
pressure (lots of hydrostatic pressure in a big hose)
muscle of QUIET BREATHING inspiration
diaphragm only - energy dependent
muscle of QUIET BREATHING expiration
diaphragm only
what keeps the diaphragm alive?
Phrenic N., C3, C4, C5
Accessory muscles of inspiration used, i.e., during exercise (4)
External intercostals
SCM
Scalenes
Anterior Serratus
Job of accessory breathing muscles
lift ribs and increase A-P chest cavity diameter
Gas is ___________ & expandable.
compressible
Only 2 accessory muscles to expiration:
Abdominals (#1)
Internal intercostals (exhale)
What are the lungs surrounded by?
thin layer of pleural fluid
Maintains continuous suction between lung pleura and parietal pleura
lymphatics suck excess fluid
Boyle's Law
P1V1 = P2V2
Increase pressure, decrease volume (and vice versa)
If you decrease the pressure of a gas, you increase it's ________.
volume - because it expands to fill its container!
What kind of pump is lung pressure?
negative pressure
3 pressures
Pleural, Alveolar, Transpulmonary
Which of the 3 pressures (Pleural, Alveolar, Transpulmonary) is made up?
Transpulmonary
The pressure of the fluid in the space between the lung pleura and chest wall
Pleural Pressure: (-) due to sucking action of lymphatics
Negative pressure due to sucking action of lymphatics
Pleural
on the pressure chart, where is pleural?
at the bottom
on pressure chart, where is alveolar?
middle
on pressure chart, where is transpulmonary pressure (the fake one)?
between alveolar (middle) ad pleural (bottom)
Resting pleural pressure
(-5)cm
End of inspiration pleural pressure
(-7)cm
End of expiration pleural pressure
(-5)cm again - same as resting
Effect of pleural pressure going from (-5)cm to (-7)cm, then back to (-5)cm during resting, inspiration, expiration?
increases lung vol by 500ml
pressure of air inside lung alveoli
alveolar pressure
alveolar pressure range
+1 to (-1) cm
alveolar pressure at rest
+1cm
Pleural pressure increases the lung volume by 500ml. What does alveolar pressure do?
allows that 500ml of air to go in and out!
Alveolar pressure range is +1 to (-1)cm. What is measurement at rest & end of expiration/inspiration pressure?
0 cm H20
Upshot: both pleural and alveolar pressures __________ with inspiration and __________ with expiration.
decrease with breath intake, increase when air is exhaled
At rest, at the end of inspiration and at the end of expiration, what is odd about the ALVEOLAR pressure?
all 0 cm (zero) H20
Does pulmonary pressure return to zero cm H20 between phases?
no
the difference between alveolar and pleural pressure
POSITIVE transpulmonary pressure
Transpulmonary pressure is always ?
Positive
Why is transpulmonary pressure always positive?
(-Palveolar) - (-Ppleural) = +

Neg - Neg = Pos
Measures Elastic recoil of lung
Positive Transpulmonary Pressure - the difference between alveolar and pleural pressure
Resting Positive Transpulmonary Pressure (PTP):
+5cm H20 because:

0 cm resting alveolar - (-5) cm resting pleural = +5
The extent to which the lungs will expand for each unit increase in transpulmonary pressure.
Compliance of lungs ("how easily can I inflate my lungs?")
Lung compliance decreases with
increasing volume (ie, it is harder to expel air when there is a high volume)
example of low compliance
lungs filled with water so can't breathe in - drown
lung compliance is due to
elastic forces of lung tissue (1/3) and surface tension (2/3)
What keeps lungs from collapsing? The elastic forces of lung tissue, surface tension or Surfactant?
Surfactant! reduces surface tension
attraction of water molecules for each other at the air-water interface
surface tension
Surface tension (water attraction to itself) could cause the alveoli to collapse were it not for ____________
surfactant (type II alveolar cell secretions)
measures pulmonary volumes
spirometry
pulmonary volumes are __-__% less in women
20-25%
4 pulmonary Volumes:
Tidal (TV)
Inspiratory Reserve (IRV)
Expiratory Reserve (Erv)
Residual (RV)
ERV parked his RV in IRVington and watched TV
Tidal (TV)
Inspiratory Reserve (IRV)
Expiratory Reserve (ERV)
Residual (RV)
the frequency with which gas molecules hit the container is the
pressure - the bigger the container, the less often or longer it takes for molecules to hit due to distance, so pressure down with volume/size up
The surface tension of the alveolar fluid tends to pull each of the alveoli inward, thereby pulling the lung in on itself. What stops this alveolar collapse?
surfactant!
no pressure difference between the alveolar an pulmonary pressure causes the lung to collapse
pneumothorax -air outside in high pressure going inside the thoracic cavity to low pressure
why does air flow into the lungs when the diaphragm contracts?
Volume of thoracic cavity increases, pleural pressure down, volume of alveoli increases, alveolar pressure down, air flows in following law
the law is from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
ie, air into the lungs when the pressure drops due to diaphragm contracts, then pleural P down, then alveolar P down, so lesser conc. area
What happens when the pleural pressure drops from (-7.5) to (-5)?
Pleural cavity pressure increases because less space/volume, followed by Alveolar P rising above atm to +1 so P up. Air out to area lesser conc.
why does resistance increase when the diameter of the bronchioles decreases (shrinks)?
because more molecules contact the wall of the bronchiole, so more resistance
what might increase resistance in bronchioles?
constriction due to parasympathetic Ach via nerve or Histamine
released by the adrenal medulla during exercise or stress, this hormone dilates the bronchioles and reduces air flow resistance
Epinephrine
inflates easily with a minimum of pressure due to elastic quality (healthy lung)
high compliance
difficult to inflate and may occur during conditions of fibrosis (less flexible connective tissue taking over lung)
low compliance
respiratory distress syndrome in a newborn is due to
no Type II alveolar cells secreting surfactant to keep alveoli from collapsing. Baby cannot breathe. Low compliance.
lowers surface tension and increases lung compliance
surfactant
the amount of air breathed IN and OUT in a NORMAL breath
Tidal volume (TV)
500ml
amount of air that can be breathed IN AFTER normal breath out
Inspiratory Reserve volume (IRV)
2500-3000ml
amount of air that can be breathed OUT after normal breath out
Expiratory Reserve volume (ERV)
1000ml
air left in lung (cannot be measured using spirometry)
Residual volume (RV)
1100ml
If you add more than one pulmonary volume (ERV parked his RV in IRVington and watch TV), then it's called
pulmonary capacity
IRV + TV
All the air that can be breathed in with a DEEP BREATH
Inspiratory capacity DEEP BREATH
*(IRV) + (TV)
ERV + RV
(amt of air that can be breathed out after normal breath + residual air)
WHEEZER
Fun-ctional Residual capacity (wheezer)
TV + IRV + ERV
(great gulping gasps of air and forced expiration - @lmost DROWNING)
Vital capacity
@lmost drowning
total amt of new air moved into the respiratory passages each MINUTE
MINUTE respiratory volume
(TV x Respiratory rate)
How fast do you breath when watching t.v.? I'll let you know in a minute.
the rate at which new air reaches the alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar Ventilation
(TV-dead space x respiratory rate)
Poiseuille's Law of Airway ________

Flow=[deltaP][pi][r to the 4th]/
[8][mu][length]
Resistance: means less volume creates more pressure in the lung (the molecules ping/pressure sides faster when there is a smaller container/volume)
Where is air resistance the greatest?
medium-sized muscular bronchi of the conducting zone
(because of the smooth muscle)
How does the great resistance of the medium-sized most muscular bronchi affect airflow?
decreases ventilation
Why does resistance go from
increase in cross-sectional area
Why does forced expiration sound like a wheeze?
airway resistance increases when the pressure can begin to collapse the medium-sized bronchi - EXERCISE INDUCED ASTHMA
Why can't you have resistance in the alveoli?
there is NO MUSCLE in alveoli (only in medium-sized bronchi)
What are numbers for alveolar pressure again?
0 at rest, then (-1) on inspiration
Back to 0, then +1 on expiration
Then back to 0 at end of expiration.

0 to (-1) to 0 to +1 to 0
What are the numbers for pleural pressure again?
(-5) at rest, then (-7.5) on inspiration
Stay (-7) to end of inspiration then
Rise during expiration to (-5)

(-5) to (-7.5) to (-5) over and over
What are the numbers for Transpulmonary Pressure?
Bronchiole pressure - Pleural pressure = Transpulmonary

ie, 0 - (-5) = +5 and TransP must always be positive
What happens if Transpulmonary pressure number is negative?
The forced expiration causes the bronchi to collapse and the exercise-induced asthmatic wheezing begins
What number must always be negative in the Math of Airway resistance during forced exhalation?
PLEURAL PRESSURE (-) always.
air that fills the respiratory passage but does not have gas exchange
DEAD air
amt of anatomical DEAD air
150ml
Physiological amt of dead air
depends on ventilation-perfusion ratio
the air which reaches the lungs
ventilation
the blood which reaches the lungs
perfusion
Brings deoxygenated blood to lung from right ventricle
pulmonary artery
thin walled, distensible, short vessel, large compliance, carry deoxygenated blood to lung from right ventricle
Pulmonary ARTERY
short vessel containing oxygenated blood that empties into left atria
Pulmonary vein
from where does the blood supply to the supporting lung tissue come?
systemic circulation (1-2%)
drain into the R thoracic duct
&
prevent pulmonary edema
pulmonary LYMPHATICS
what is the pulmonary artery systolic/diastolic pressure?
25/8 (mean of 15) so...

2/3 is systolic
1/3 is diastolic
TOTAL bood volume of LUNGS
450ml
Blood volume of Pulmonary CAPILLARIES
80ml
The pulmonary capillaries can act as a blood ____________, storing from 1/2 x normal to up to 2x normal.
reservoir
How does the lung keep from starving for oxygen when alveolar level drops below normal?
(less than 73mmHg PO2)
Adjacent blood vessels CONSTRICT and SHUNTS BLOOD to area where it will be aerated.
How does the systemic circulation keep an area of low oxygen from dying?
VasoDILATOR so blood flows in (opposite of pulmonary, which constricts then shunts blood to low O2 area to be aerated)
Capillaries remain open when the pulmonary arterial pressure is ______ than the alveolar pressure.
greater

lung artery pressure greater than alevolar pressure (and vice versa)
What happens if the alveolar pressure is greater than the pulmonary arterial pressure?
The capillary will collapse
How is pulmonary blood flow (arterial pressure vs. alveolar pressure) described?
as Zones 1,2,3
what zone of pulmonary blood flow is pathological
zone 1 = pathology
(no blood flow during ALL of cardiac cycle)
Normal blood flow during systole only that is in the apices of the lung when standing
zone 2 = systole
continuous blood flow during all of cardiac cycle, when standing, lying down and EXERCISE
zone 3 = continuous flow, EXERCISE
effect of exercise of pulmonary blood flow
Recruitment up!
Distension up!
Zone 3 = continuous flow
effect of increasing pulmonary blood flow during exercise via recruitment and distension is that pulmonary _______________ pressure is increased.
arterial pressure is increased during exercise
increasing the number of capillaries
recruitment
distending capillaries which increases blood flow
distension
recruitment and distension
increase pulmonary arterial pressure (happens during exercise)
What reduces the amount of time blood spends in the capillary?
exercise
Is ventilation normal during exercise
yup
Normal cardiac output?

Increased cardiac output?
0.8 sec

0.3 sec
+1mmHg
Capillary Net Filtration Pressure
What keeps the alveoli dry in the lung?
LYMPHATIC PUMP and Negative Interstitial pressure
Hydrostatic pressure always
PUSHES (negative # pulls)
COLLOIDAL OSMOTIC pressure always
pulls, therefore it is a negative number
Anything that pulls is a __________ number.
negative
A ________ PUSH in the right direction!
positive
At rest, the lymphatic pump is sucking at what pressure?
(-5)
By pure math alone, my lungs will always have water because the lymphatic pump is always (-5) and the pleural pressure is always (-5). What keeps alveoli dry?
Negative interstitial pressure and the lymphatic pump.
+1 = capillary net filtration pressure
How do you figure capillary net filtration pressure?
*subtract the pushing hydrostatics=out
*subtract the pulling colloidals=in
*add the "out" + "in" = filtration
If it's a (+) then it's out, if (-) then in b/c + always out, (-) always in.
what allows expansion of lung
small amt of FLUID in pleural CAVITY
type of fluid in pleural cavity
mucoid
Pressure of pleural cavity
{-7} mmHg
holds lung suspended in space
describe membrane of pleural cavity
porous
mesenchymal
serous
How do gas molecules move?
from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

total effect is EVEN DISPERSION
what gas can cross over easily?
CO2
Partial Pressure of a gas
*a gas' individual pressure as part of a team of gasses of a mixture

"each separate gas comprises one fraction of the total volume of gas"
The total pressure exerted by all of the gas molecules in a container is the ____________ pressure.
atmospheric

(air contains 79% nitrogen, so in 1 gal. of air, we would still find 79% nitrogen)
Partial Pressure of Gasses:
760mmHg
What is 760mmHg?
the Partial Pressure of gasses

*equal to 0mm of water
a greater partial pressure of one gas in a mixture results in?
a greater diffusion gradient
Atmospheric air is 760mmHg and 79% of that is nitrogen, what is the partial pressure of nitrogen?
(760mmHg) x (79%) = 600.4 mmHg
how much of a particular gas can be dissolved in a solution
SOLUBILITY of a gas
Kind of gases that have a high solubility coefficient
Gases attracted to WATER molecules and therefore, can easily be dissolved
If a gas has a low solubility coefficient, then it thinks water is ___________!
repulsive!
Which gas has the highest solubility coefficient? What does that mean?
CO2 at 0.57

*means it is attracted to water and can easily dissolve in water. CO2 is 20x more soluble than oxygen!
Which has a greater solubility coefficient (greatest affinity for water), CO2 or Oxygen?
CO2

(twenty times higher than oxygen so it likes us very much, but we don't like it)
What gases diffuse across the alveoli?
carbon dioxide and oxygen
through what mediums do CO2 and O2 travel
between air and fluid through the alveolar septum and fenestrated walls of capillaries
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are ________ soluble so they pass easily through the cell membrane.
lipid
What does diffusion of gases depend on? (across alveoli0
Temp
Cross-section area of fluid
Surface area of membrane
Thickness of membrane
SOLUBILITY of the gas!
An increase in TEMP will __________ the diffusion of molecules across alveoli of lungs.
increase

(temp always speeds up molecular movement)
An increase in THICKNESS of membrane will ________ diffusion of gas molecules across the alveoli.
decrease
An increase in SURFACE AREA will __________ diffusion of gas molecules across alveoli.
increase
An increase of CROSS-SECTIONAL area of fluid will ___________ diffusion of gas molecules across the alveoli.
increase
An increase of SOLUBILITY of the gas (high solubility content, attracted to water, readily dissolved in water) will ___________ the diffusion of gas molecules across the alveoli.
increase
Given the diffusion coefficient of Oxygen as 1.0 and CO2 as 20.3, if the Partial pressures were both 100mmHg on one side of a membrane and 10 on other, which diffuses faster?
It says CO2 is 20x more soluble than oxygen, so I pick that one.
Memorize: Partial pressures OXYGEN
1. Alveoli
2. Arteries
3. Capillaries
4. Veins
1. Alveoli = 104 mmHg
2. Arteries = 100 mmHg
3. Capillaries = 40-100 mmHg
5. Veins = 40 mmHg
memorize: Partial Press CO2
a. alveoli
b. arteries
c. capillaries
d. veins
a. alveoli 40
b. arteries 40
c. capillaries 40-45
d. veins 45
When you breathe in air, what is PP of oxygen after it mixes with residual air volume in alveoli?
104 mmHg
What is the PP of oxygen in the venous blood as it perfuses through the pulmonary capillaries?
40
What is the PP of oxygen as it diffuses across the alveolar membrane, establishing an equalibrium and on exiting the pulmonary capillaries is full of oxygen?
104 mmHg again

(full circle from its 104 at entrance)
Why does the PP of Oxygen drop from 104 to 100 when it leaves the pulmonary capillaries on its way to the heart, and the rest of the body?
has to supply the lung parenchyma!
After having supplied the lungs themselves, the blood is ejected from the heart with a PP of oxygen?
100
Where is PP of Carbon dioxide always highest?
veins @ 45 mmHg

(hello! not as much oxygen, more room for carbon dioxide!)
second highest PP of carbon dioxide in body after veins?
capillaries 40-45 mmHg
PP of Carbon dioxide in alveoli and arterioles?
40. always.
Why is the PP of carbon dioxide
27 mmHg at expiration?
the alveolar 40 mixes with inhaled fresh air that is 0.3
What determines the amount of oxygen partial pressure in the tissues?
METABOLIC NEED

(less active needs less O2 so lower partial pressure of O2 in those tissues)
Why does O2 diffuse into the tissues instead of just staying in the blood?
Partial Pressure Gradient

(from area of more to area of less) into the interstitial fluid around cells
OXYGEN arterial end of capillary @ 95
OXYGEN venous end of capillary @ 40
Meet at 40.
Diffuse into interstitial space of 23.
Why?
Because 23 mmHg is lower than 40 and so go from area of higher pressure to lower pressure.
Increase of metabolic activity of tissues causes increased O2 demand but also creates more?
CO2

which then increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the tissue
When the tissue CO2 level/partial pressure is greater than the capillary CO2/partial pressure, what happens?
The CO2 diffuses from tissue to blood, following its pressure gradient.
upshot of diffusion
O2 greater outside in capillary will diffuse into interstitial tissue area of lower conc/press. CO2 greater in tissue will diffuse to area of lower conc/pressure that is in capillary.
2 ways Oxygen is transported in blood:
1. dissolved
2. bound to carrier proteins
Majority of oxygen is transported this way?
bound to carrier proteins = HEMOGLOBIN!
Describe structure of Hemogoblin
Boo! 4 goblins with a heme group bound between them - they can eat him later. Each goblin can catch 4 Oxygens. If hunting good for one goblin, hunting good for all goblins.
Dictates the Oxygen-Hemoglobin DISSOCIATION curve.
the structure of Hemoglobin
What does the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve tell us?
the % of occupied hemoglobin sites when Oxygen is at a particular partial pressure
% of bound/occupied hemoglobin sites with oxygen at a particular partial pressure is called the Hemoglobin _____________ Level.
Saturation
Few O2 have bound to Hemogoblins and hunting is good. Easy to catch them so doesn't take long to fill.
Part of Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Slope?
Steep part (hunting)
Hemogoblins have bagged their 4 Oxygen limits for the most part. There'd have to be a hell of a lot of Oxy's for total saturation. Part of O-H Dissociation Slope?
Plateau phase (stuffed)
What can cause the curve to Right shift (more O2 pressure, more saturation/capture by Hemogoblins)?

*vice versa - memorize Right causes
down pH

up PP of CO2
up Temp
up 2-3 DPG
How is Carbon Dioxide safely transported in the blood?
+as bicarbonate ions+ in RED BLOOD CELLS!!!

some is dissolved
some bound to carbaminohemoglobin
What converts CO2 to carbonic acid inside RED BLOOD CELLS?
Carbonic ANhydrase
Once carbonic acid (the old CO2 that entered) is in the red blood cell, what happens?
dissociates to form +bicarbonate ions+
&
H+ ions
The H+ ions do what after dissociating from carbonic acid in the RBC?
bind to Hemoglobin (think of H+ as the acid indigestion left over from bagging all those Oxygens. The goblins now got a case of H+ reflux)
H+ binds to hemoglobin after dissociating - what happens to bicarbonate left over?
It's used as the ACID-BASE BUFFER with CO2
When hyperventilating, why should you breathe into a paper bag?
Because the CO2 level in your body has dropped and there is less H+. You are now in respiratory alkalosis/base and need CO2, which you exhale and re-inhale from the bag.
Regulation of respiration could be considered the nervous system's adjustments to ___________ ventilation when the body demands it.
alveolar
1. gather information: ___________
2. integrate signals: ____________
3. Effectors: ___________
1. sensors
2. central controller
3. muscles
4 lung receptors
Stretch
Chemical
Irritant
J-receptors
alveolar wall receptors that detect lung disease and edema
J-receptors (JUNK receptors)
Receptors that inhibit inhalation -'switch OFF' dorsal respiratory center

Hering-Breuer reflex.
Stretch receptors
Bronchioconstriction! Increased ventilation by causing blood to be shunted to low O2 areas.
Irritant receptors
Are both central and peripheral lung receptors.
cHEMical romance receptors
changes in arterial _____ have greater effect than changes in arterial ____ (regarding chemical central and peripheral lung receptors)
CO2 Central greater
than pH peripHeral
what is the INSPIRATORY CENTER of the medulla most sensitive to?
High concentration of CO2 or H+ ions (low pH)
If the INSPIRATORY CENTER of the medulla detects a high conc. of CO2 or H+ (low pH), what will it do?
greatly increase the strength of BOTH inspiration and expiration
Central chemical control responds to
CO2 (and H+)
Peripheral chemical control responds to ____________.
Oxygen! You need oxygen to get all the way out to the far reaches of you.
Where is the peripheral control center that detects Oxygen levels in body?
carotid body
Carotid body is sensitive to
low oxygen (less than 100mmHg PP)
and
high carbon dioxide/H+ concentration
Is the central control of respiratory on both sides or one side of the medulla and pons?
both, like most things
Organization of Central respiratory control into 3 groups
Dorsal

Ventral

Pneumotaxic ctr
In the DORSAL respiratory group under the 4th ventricle, what cranial nerves and tract?
Solitary and CN 9 and CN 10
Function of DORSAL respiratory group?
INspiration!
Chemical control sensor CENTRAL

chemical control sensor PERIPHERAL
3 respiratory centers (CO2 and H+)

carotid body (O2)
The dorsal respiratory group gets input from Solitary nucleus tract & 9.10.
Input of ventral respiratory group?
Nucleus ambiguous, retroambiguous
function of VENTRAL respiratory group
EXTRA respiratory drive (inactive during normal quiet breathing)
function of PNEUMO-TAXIC ctr
limits inspiration *********
Increases rate of breathing (short and shallow)
what is the communicator for Pneumotaxic center
nucleus pararachialis
We don't know the exact mechanism for increased ventilation, but what is it designed to do?
control CO2 amt partial pressure during exercise
body temperature will ___________ the production of CO2 and have a direct effect on the respiratory center
increase