Nutrition Module 3

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Photosynthesis

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Carbohydrates, including fibre, are found mostly in plant foods and made by a process of carbon fixing referred to as Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs when carbon dioxide plus water plus sunlight energy makes carbohydrates and water.

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The process of photosynthesis, in which green plants use the Sun's energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, Takes place inside one of the plant cell organelles called the chloroplast and requires chlorophyll.

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Chlorophyll Is a large, magnesium containing molecule that can be seen as green pigments found in life forms capable of photosynthesis. This plant pigment captures electromagnetic sunlight energy to make carbohydrate molecules, including sugars, starches, and fibres, from carbon dioxide and water.

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Fibre

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A common fibre type called cellulose consists of many glucose units linked together by Beta bond, thus it is a complex carbohydrate. Humans do not produce digestive enzymes to break the Beta bonds in fibre, it is an indigestible and non caloric polysacaride. Some fibre types have been termed functional fibre.

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Functional fibre

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Indigestible dietary components that have been isolated from natural sources or synthetically made, and have beneficial physiological effects in humans. Examples include cellulose gel, fructooligosaccharides, psyllium, inulin, xanthan gum, guar gum, or flaxseed meal, which contains Lignin. Additionally, psyllium May improve heart health, and fructooligosaccharides May improve gastrointestinal health.

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Dietary fibre

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Dietary fibre consists of the edible, indigestible components of carbohydrates and Lignin. This is an insoluble, indigestible organic molecule that holds cellulose fibres together in plants. The most common dietary fibre consumed is cellulose. Dietary fibre is measured as the residue remaining after digestion, absorption, and excretion has occurred in vivo.

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In vivo

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Refers to studies conducted, or any processes that occur, in living organisms. In this case, an animal is fed a known quantity of a plant food, and the indigestible carbohydrate residue is measured after excretion.This measurement is used to label the grams of fibre per serving in human foods.

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Total fibre

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The sum of dietary plus functional fibre in food is the total fibre value that is reflected as the fibre content in grams on food package labels in the nutrition facts panel.

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Categories of fibre

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Though there are different types of fibres found in whole plant foods, they have an overarching property that causes them to be categorised as soluble or insoluble.

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Soluble fibres

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Indigestible, mostly plant derived dietary components that soften in water, including pectins, gums, and mucilages. Common food sources include fruits, vegetables, legumes, and Oates, oatmeal and cereal.

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Insoluble fibres

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Indigestible, mostly plant derived dietary components that do not soften in water, including cellulose, hemicelluloses, and Lignin. Common food sources include whole grain foods, celery strings, and apple peels.

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Fibre recommendations

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The general dietary reference intake for total fibre is 38 g for an adult male and 25 g for an adult female. However, these values are not personalised. A more accurate calculation is derived based on that person's daily calorie intake. This personal recommendation for fibre is 1.4 g per 100 calories consumed. Equation (calories consumed÷100×1.4). Individuals taking in less than one g per 100 calories of fiber are categorized as low, 1 to 2 g per 100 calories are categorised as good, 2 to 4 g per 100 calories is categorised as high, and anything greater than 4 g per 100 calories is categorised as very high. Although there is no tolerable upper intake level for fibre, there are negative effects associated with too much fibre in the diet.

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Benefits and actions of fibre

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Both soluble and insoluble fibre add bulk to the diet and increase stool volume. All types of fibre increase the volume of chyme through the GI tract. High fibre foods have decreased caloric density. Meaning, you can eat larger volumes of food with fewer calories absorbed. Dietary fibre is also a stool softener. Because the fibre molecules are closely associated with water molecules, It makes the stool easier to move through the GI tract And effective for relieving constipation by promoting laxation. Fibre also decreases transit time, the amount of the time spent in the GI tract. The exposure time of the large intestine cells to potential carcinogens In the feces is decreased, so the risk for colorecto cancer is decreased. A high fibre diet also improves the tone of GI tracked muscles. Peristalsis, Circular wave action that propels food through the GI tract, Fibre softens waste and increases the volume of chime passing. This allows the muscles to exercise better during peristalsis improving muscular strength. Having strong muscles decreases the risk of having GI tract diseases like diverticular disease. Soluble fiber types Have a molecular affinity to bind lipids, specifically cholesterol and thus promote heart health. Is the fibre in oat bran and legumes Is particularly effective in binding the cholesterol rich bile salts And undigested breakdown products of fats that may have the potential for carcinogenesis. Besides the possibility of reducing the risk of colon cancer, soluble fibre reduces blood or serum cholesterol levels and can prevent heart disease. Finally, soluble fibre increases gastric emptying time, the time chyme spends in the stomach. Is the presence of soluble fibre Decreases the absorption rate of glucose. Thus, the blood sugar level after eating is lower and may be more favourable for individuals with diabetes and metabolic syndrome.

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Diverticular disease

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Diverticulosis, a condition where diverticula, out-pocketing, Are present in the colon as a result of weak colon wall structures and increased pressure against them. When the diverticula are inflamed, it is termed diverticulitis.

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Serum cholesterol

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The level of total cholesterol in the bloodstream, including mostly LDL and HDL, it is at a desirable level when it is less than 200 mg per DL.

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Gastric emptying time

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The amount of time it takes chyme to pass through the stomach.

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Metabolic syndrome

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A lifestyle disease where the diagnosis is made by having 3 or more of the 5 following metabolic risk factors, central adaposity, hypertension, hypoglycemia, hypertriglycerademia, or low HDL cholesterol.

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Negative effects of too much fibre

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A sudden transition to a high fibre diet can cause gas and bloating. A diet too high and fibre can cause frequent bowl movements. There is no real definition for normal bowl movements, it is a personal thing, but usually once or twice A-day for most people. Certain fibre types can bind to and prevent the absorption of positively charged minerals like calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and iron, and provitamin A. The decreased caloric value associated with high fibre diets may cause calorie deficiency, especially for an undernoursished child. For the very young and the very old, it may be difficult to achieve energy balance if dietary fibre intake is too high. Lastly, an insufficient water consumption with a high fibre intake can cause intestinal blockage. This is especially true with encapsolated fibre supplements Intended to promote weight loss.

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Effect of whole grain processing on fibre

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Grains are the seeds of grass type plants and are also consumed as foods or used to make food products like bread, cereal, and pasta. Some examples of whole grains that can be processed or eaten in their whole state include weed, barley, rye, oats, corn, and rice. Some other Grains eaten as staple foods in various parts of the world include amaranth, buckwheat, millet, quinoa, spelt, and Teff. In each case the kernel is protected by a husk that is removed, So a whole grain or whole grain containing food product has the bran, germ, and endosperm of the grain. When a whole grain is refined, the bran layer containing fibre and the germ layer are removed. This leaves the endosperm for refined grain products which contains starch and protein but far less fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Because of the loss of essential nutrients, the enrichment act of 1942 was passed with the goal of improving nutritional quality of refined grains. Nutrients that have been added back by law in the enrichment process include iron, Thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. In 1998 folic acid also added back in refined bread and cereal. Still, fewer nutrients are obtained from consuming the refined food product than from the whole, unrefined food.

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Glucose and glycogen

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The body prefers to use glucose for energy metabolism. Under normal circumstances, glucose is the only energy producing nutrient that red blood cells, brain cells, and Central nervous system cells can use to generate adenosine triphosphate. Glucose is obtained from dietary carbohydrate sources including starches and Simple sugar's, fructose, glucose, galactose, lactose, sucrose, maltose. The majority of carbohydrates consumed should be from complex carbohydrates such as starches and fibres as opposed to simple sugar sources Because they have higher nutrient density and high fibre content when eaten as unrefined foods, and they lessen blood sugar swings, or highs and lows. When the body is at rest, a minimum amount of 130 g per day DRI of dietary carbohydrate Is needed to support red blood cell metabolism and central nervous system function and much more if muscular work is done throughout the day. Most carbohydrate molecules are ultimately converted to glucose for energy production in the body. However, because the dietary carbohydrate intake isn't immediately needed for energy production some can be stored in the liver and muscle in the form of glycogen, Usually hours in the liver and days in the muscle. Glycogen, Known as animal starch, it is a complex carbohydrate, and A polysaccharide because it is made up of many glucose units. Liver glycogen is used primarily to regulate blood sugar levels that support the brain, central nervous system, and red blood cell functioning, whereas muscle glycogen is used to meet the energy needs of high intensity muscular work. The liver can store about 100 grams, 400 calories, of Glycogen. Greater amounts of carbohydrate Intake are required to support an active lifestyle involving high intensity muscle work. To achieve the higher end of muscle glycogen stored for better physical performance, the muscle needs to be stimulated with daily moderate exercise, and dietary carbohydrate intake needs to range between 60 and 65% of calories consumed. Because red blood cells and nervous tissues are using glucose constantly, glucose needs to be constantly put back into the bloodstream. Liver glycogen is slowly broken down releasing glucose into the bloodstream upon hormonal signalling in between meals to maintain normal blood sugar levels and normal functioning of the brain, central nervous system, and red blood cells.Is fasting blood sugar range is 70 to 99 mg of glucose per Deciliter of blood. The 2 main hormones involved in blood sugar, glucose, regulation are insulin and glucagon. They work antagonistically to ensure that blood sugar levels are optimal for body functioning.When dietary carbohydrate intake is restricted, the fastest way to generate glucose internally is by converting amino acids to carbohydrate intermediate molecules. Sources of amino acids within the body include amino acid pools, muscle tissue, and organs. The breakdown of amino acids and proteins Occurs when glucose is not plentiful and fat break down cannot keep up with energy needs. Thus, carbohydrates can be said to be protein sparing. Very simply put, the body cannot work efficiently without carbohydrate available as the primary source of energy. Dietary carbohydrates are converted to glucose to be used for energy production needs, to replete glycogen, and if excess energy intake occurs, glucose is converted to fat for storage.

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Blood glucose regulation by insulin and glucagon

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Normally, human blood glucose levels are maintained between 70 and 99 mg of Glucose per 100 milliliters, one deciliter of blood. Two regulatory hormones, insulin and glucagon, predominantly regulate blood glucose levels. Blood glucose Is levels rise rapidly after ingestion, digestion, and absorption of digestible carbohydrate. The rise of blood glucose causes insulin to be secreted. Insulin is a protein hormone produced by the Beta cells of the pancreas and secreted into the bloodstream in response to elevated blood sugar levels. Insulin binds to insulin receptors on liver and muscle cells. Cells use the glucose for immediate energy production or to replenish glycogen stores. This is an anabolic process. Insulin can cause blood glucose levels to drop very rapidly while target cells are being flooded with glucose. In response to the dropping blood glucose levels, glucagon, A protein hormone produced by the alpha cells in the pancreas, is secreted into the blood. This sends a catabolic signal To liver cells, Which stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stores and release glucose back into the bloodstream. The maintenance of normal blood glucose levels is critical for brain, central nervous system, and red blood cell functioning.

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Is difference between type one and type 2 diabetes

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Type one is usually referred to as early onset or childhood diabetes And is caused when the pancreas is not making enough Beta sells to provide insulin to the bloodstream. And type 2 diabetes, typically referred to as late onset or adult diabetes is caused when the pancreas has no issues producing Beta bonds but The blood system has somehow become immune to the effects of the insulin. Typically type 2 retardation of insulin is caused by excess body fat.

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Carbohydrate disorders

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There are many disorders related to carbohydrates. Some including lactose intolerance, milk allergy, hypoglycemia, and diabetes.

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lactose intolerance and lactose maldigestion

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Why do some people, especially those from certain cultural heritage tolerate cow's milk while others do not? The answers are tied to human bioccultural evolution and how several alterations to the human genome can contribute to genetic variance at the population level. The ability to Digest and absorb mother's milk is a necessity for the survival of any infant mammal, including humans. Historically, when milk consumption ends after weaning, the lactate's enzyme gene is no longer required, so the gene is turned off. When this gene is inactive, the consumption of milk sugar, lactose, or milk products leads to a severe gastrointestinal condition known as lactose intolerance. In general, many individuals of American and northern European descent tend to be more lactase persistent and lactose tolerant. Native Americans and people from Asia and West Africa, whose ancestors are from non cattle ranching cultures, tend to be more lactase deficient and lactose intolerant. As humans age, the concentrations of lactase diminishes causing an inability to Digest lactose. We can label this condition lactose maldigestion.

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Evolution

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Is the change in heritable genetic composition of a population, such as by gene mutation and as a result of natural selection, which leads to adaptation over successive generations.

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Lactose intolerance

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An inborn error of metabolism in which a person cannot make lactase and thus has no ability to Digest the milk sugar lactose, signs include severe gas, floating, and diarrhoea after lactose ingestion.

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Lactose maldigestion

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A condition in which a person has a limited ability to make lactase Is and thus has a compromised ability to Digest the milk sugar lactose, resulting in the signs of gas, bloating, and diarrhoea after lactose ingestion.

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Natural selection

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The evolution of a species through genetic alterations inheritable traits that enable the species to adapt and survive in its environment over time. As late as 5000 BC, fossil evidence indicates that ancient adult Europeans were unable to Digest milk. It has been estimated that 7000 to 9000 years ago, one of the strongest human genetic Natural selection signatures took place by the origination of cattle ranching in the Middle East, making cows milk readily available for humans to drink. Being able to drink milk into and through adulthood is advantageous because of the nutritional value and source of fluid for the body. The Fulani and tutsi are 2 cattle ranching tribes in East Africa. They CO evolved with European cattle ranchers. Yet, the 2 cultures have specific dna mutations, or molecular signatures, enabling their lactase gene persistence and thus lactose tolerance. The studies of inheritance patterns and evolution reveal varying degrees of lactase gene persistence.

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Lactose maldigestion

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Lactose intolerance occurs when an enzyme called lactase, needed to Digest lactose and break the glucose-galactose bond, Is missing. With lactose maldigestion, the lactase Enzyme is reduced. Normally, cells in the small intestine produced lactase, and the enzyme is present in pancreatic digestive secretions. When this enzyme is missing or insufficient, a person consumes lactose from dairy products and digestion does not occur in the small intestine. Intact, undigestible lactose is not absorbable, and the result is that high concentrations of lactose enter the colon and are metabolized by bacteria in the GI Tract, leading to osmotic diarrhea. The gases produced from the bacterial catabolism of lactose also contributes to the discomfort of gas, bloating, cramps, and diarrhea. Individuals with lactose maldigestion May be able to tolerate a small amount of lactose from dairy products, especially those produced with bacteria such as yogurt, aged cheese and milk products with bacteria added, like acidophilus milk.

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Food allergies

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Food allergies occur when the protein components within foods are recognised by the immune system as foreign, causing the body to produce antibodies directed against them. Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are large protein structures Is that circulate in the body to fight disease and infection. 5 classes of antibodies, IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. However, IgE Are involved most commonly in allergic reactions. They are made by the immune system to specifically bind to a protein component. When a protein is known to cause an allergic response in a person, the protein is termed an allergen. Normally, antibodies are directed against proteins in viruses or bacteria. In this case, the offending protein is called an antigen. Allergens and antigens are foreign substances that elicit the immune response. A classic allergic response that is IgE mediated, Is the type one immediate hypersensitivity reaction. These reactions can occur within seconds to days of allergen exposure. Signs and symptoms associated with allergic reaction include nausea, Vomiting, diarrhea, skin reaction like itchy hives and dermatitis, or in some cases, increased secretions of the mucus membranes that are most noticeable in the upper respiratory tract or the GI tract. Asthma and anaphylactic shock are severe and even life threatening responses to allergens.

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Milk allergy

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Lactose intolerance is different from milk allergy. Many people experience a significant histamine mediated allergic response when dairy products are consumed. This causes mucus membranes to secrete fluid. This is why allergic responses usually involve skin, gut, and respiratory distress. With milk allergy, the culprit is not lactose, but rather the casein protein As if it were a foreign substance. The GI tract is lined with Enormous number of immune cells, collectively called the gut associated lymphoid tissue. Allergies involve the immune system, and when food is the cause of the allergy, the responses are usually immediate and can include gastro intestinal distress, skin reactions, and respiratory problems. The common food allergens are specific proteins and milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans. An adverse allergy like reaction to a food or food component that does not trigger an immune response is termed food intolerance. There is no limited treatment for food allergy or intolerance besides eliminating the offending food from the person's diet.

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Hypoglycemia

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Hypoglycemia is a condition characterised by low blood sugar levels. Generally, a blood sugar value of less than 60 mg per decileter causes symptoms of hypoglycemia. In this condition, the signs and symptoms are feeling nervous, lightheaded, shaky, week, sweaty, and/or faint, as well as having a headache, blurred vision, and/or or hunger. Low blood sugar levels can occur in some people as reactive, spontaneous, or drug induced hypoglycemia.

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Reactive hypoglycemia

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This is a condition in which blood sugar levels drop after eating a load of digestible Carbohydrate. This can occur because too much glucose is removed too rapidly from the blood And causing too much to enter the muscles and liver, resulting in low blood sugar levels. This can last usually about 10 minutes until a normal blood sugar level can be re established.

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Spontaneous hypoglycemia

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This occurs when liver stores of glycogen are depleted, diminishing the body's ability to maintain a normal blood sugar level. This happens to everyone between meals or when adequate amounts of carbohydrate have not been consumed.

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Drug induced hypoglycemia

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Anti-inflammatory and thyroid medications are known to cause hypoglycemia. In persons with diabetes, over administration of insulin and/or excess exercise without proper dietary carbohydrate intake results in hypoglycemia.

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Diabetes

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A chronic disease of the endocrine system resulting in the inability to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Thus, hyperglycemia, elevated levels of glucose in the bloodstream occurs. Diabetes is most commonly categorised as type one or type 2. Both types may be aggravated by increased stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Type 2 diabetes is the most common and is strongly linked with obesity and a physically inactive lifestyle. Currently, 26 million Americans are estimated to have diabetes, compared with 5.76 million in 1980. The high level of sugar in the blood puts a diabetic person at increased risk for heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, retinopathy (loss of vision), neuropathy (loss of nerve function), limb atrophy sometimes leading to amputation and decreased life expectancy

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Common complications of unmanaged diabetes by body system

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Circulatory system, damage to blood vessels causing increased risk for atherosclerosis and high blood pressure As well as heart attack, stroke, and blindness. Digestive system, gum disease, gastroparesis Causing delayed stomach emptying, heartburn, nausea, and vomiting. Is endocrine system, abnormal hormonal control of blood glucose causing hyperglycemia. Integumentary system, Increased risk of skin infection, patchy skin discoloration, and skin thickening on the back of the hands. Peripheral nervous system, nerve damage impairing sensations of pain and/or poor circulation, foot ulcers, and possible foot and leg amputation from formation Of necrotic tissue. Reproductive system, Possibility of gestational diabetes in pregnant women, leading to high birth weight, prenatal complications, and type 2 diabetes later in life. Urinary system, damage to blood vessels of the kidney, leading to kidney damage and failure.

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Type one diabetes

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This occurs in approximately 5% of diabetes cases. The onset of the disease is typically acute and occurs most often during childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. Thus, it has been termed juvenile onset diabetes. This severe form of diabetes is difficult to control, caused by an auto immune reaction Against the pancreatic Beta cells that has destroyed or reduced the ability of the pancreas to synthesise adequate amounts of insulin. Because the Beta cells have been destroyed by the auto immune response, the body loses its ability to produce insulin. In this case, blood sugar can be lowered only by insulin administration. Type one diabetics must eat amounts of carbohydrates compatible with the type and amount of insulin injected. Insulin is usually injected into soft tissue just Under the Skin, although an inhaled form holds promise with those with diabetes. With diabetes. It cannot be taken in pill form because insulin is a protein hormone. It would be denatured and digested like any other ingested protein.

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Type 2 diabetes

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This type occurs in approximately 95% of diabetes cases. Typically, the onset of the disease occurs during adulthood. However, there has been a rise in childhood obesity with type 2 diabetes. This type is predisposed by obesity and genetics. In this type, insulin resistance occurs partly because of a decreased insulin receptor response in the liver and muscle cells. In other words the lock has changed and the liver and the muscle that normally take up glucose have become resistant to the signal. Hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia Occur commonly in type 2 diabetes. Insulin sensitivity can be re established with lifestyle changes. Oral hypoglycemic agentsCan be taken in pill form to help augment the action of self produced insulin.

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Gender differences with diabetes

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Research shows that 43% of men are overweight and 32% of women are overweight. 24% of men and women are considered to be obese. For men, this is reached when they are approximately 37" wide As compared with women who have to be 31.5" wide And are at a greater risk for developing diabetes.

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Diagnosing diabetes

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A 12 hour fasting blood glucose level Is of 126 mg per deciliter or higher or a 2 hour postprandial, fed, Is blood glucose level of 200 mg per Deciliter or higher is considered hyperglycemia and indicates diabetes. A fasting blood glucose level of 100 to 125 mg per Deciliter indicates pre diabetes, and a fasting blood glucose level of greater than or = 110 mg per Deciliter is one of the diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome. A person believed to have type 2 diabetes will typically undergo a glucose tolerance test. This test involves eating a normal diet for 3 days before the test. Then the person fasts for 12 hours, and a baseline fasting blood sugar level is taken. Once again, a blood sugar level of 126 or higher indicates diabetes. Next, a glucose load of one g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight, or a maximum of 100 g for adults and 1.75 g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight for children is consumed quickly. The person's blood sugar is monitored every half hour for up to 6 hours. Blood samples are taken and sugar levels are compared to standard, normal values. Blood sugar levels of 200 mg per deciliter or higher 2 hours after glucose load indicate diabetes. Basically, the glucose tolerance test is a physiological demonstration that the person's body has reduced or no ability to lower blood sugar on its own. The test may not differentiate type one diabetes from type 2, but usually type 1 blood sugar levels are much higher than those of type 2.

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The glycemic response of foods

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For individuals with diabetes, it is helpful to eat foods that have a lower glycemic response or have a slower entrance of glucose into the bloodstream. With regards to glycemic index, various foods have been categorised in terms of their glycemic number. The higher the glycemic index number, the faster and greater the rise in blood glucose levels will be after eating the foods. Foods with high protein, fat, and fibre content tend to lessen the glycemic response and are therefore more beneficial in routinely controlling blood sugar levels.

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Lipids in heart disease

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The category of diseases of the heart is the leading cause of death in the United States.

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Heart attack

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Coronary artery disease occurs when a blood vessel leading to the heart muscle is included, blocked, and oxygen delivery to the consistently contracting heart muscle is diminished or absent. The lack of oxygen to the heart muscle, myocardium, eventually causes a heart attack, or myocardial infarction. During the heart attack, heart muscles cells die as a result of a lack of oxygen. A heart attack can be considered mild to massive depending on the degree of oxygen deprivation and the amount of heart muscle destroyed.

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Atherosclerosis

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It is estimated that 1/3 of the individuals who perish from diseases of the heart die from atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis In the blood vessels that lead to the brain also contributes to stroke. Atherosclerosis in the heart blood vessels is more commonly known as coronary artery disease, caused by clogging, narrowing, and/or hardening of the arteries. This condition occurs because of plaque build-up. Also called fatty streaks, develop in the arteries walls, usually after arterial injury has occurred, causing the progression of plaque buildup. Plaque contains fatty material, including cholesterol, which is a waxy and sticky substance. When blood levels of cholesterol increase, cholesterol rich plaque build-up also increases, and as plaque builds this is known as the progression of Coronary artery disease.

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Injuries to the arterial wall

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Injury to the arterial wall is commonly caused by hypertension, tobacco use, damage from free radicals, hyperglycemia, and hyperhomocystemia. Hypertension is also known as high blood pressure and is one of the leading causes of arterial damage leading to atheroschlorosis and coronary and cranial arteries.

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Blood pressure

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Expressed as Systolic pressure over diastolic pressure. Systolic pressure is arterial pressure caused by the contraction of the heart muscle. Diastolic pressure is arterial pressure when the heart is between contractions or beats. Blood pressure measurement are given in Millimetres of Mercury (mmHg). Normally, resting blood pressure should be less than 120 mmHg and 80 mmHg. Blood pressure values greater than these indicate either elevated blood pressure or hypertension, which causes damage to every vital organ.

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The Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension

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DASH lifestyle recommendations for controlling hypertension include maintaining a healthy body weight, being moderately physically active most days of the week, moderating alcohol intake for those who drink alcohol, and following a healthy eating plan. The DASH eating plan emphasises reduced sodium intake while increasing potassium, calcium, and magnesium intake within the realm of a diet reduced in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. The typical dash diet is high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, moderate in low fat dairy products, lean meat, and legumes, and low in sweets. Plant oils, nuts, and seeds are included as healthy dietary fat sources. The myplate food guidance system is modeled after the DASH diet. Coronary artery disease is a particular concern for men. The rate in men of age 25 to 34 is 3 times that of women of the same age period from age 35 to 44, the rate of coronary artery disease is twice as high in men as in women period from age 55 to 75, women are catching up to men in terms of death from Coronary artery disease. During this time, women are losing the protective effect of oestrogen as they undergo menopause. From age 75 to 80, the rates of death from coronary artery disease in men and women are equal.

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Risk factors for coronary artery disease

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These include elevated serum cholesterol, genetics, tobacco use, excessive alcohol consumption, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, cerebral vascular or peripheral vascular disease, Sedentary lifestyle, stress, male gender, and consuming a low fibre and high fat diet. Many of these risk factors are controllable or modifiable. So atherosclerosis is preventable by lifestyle change including diet and Aerobic fitness. Aerobic fitness causes arteries to enlarge, blood pressure to go down, and blood lipids to be reduced.

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Hypertension

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Elevated blood pressure above 120 / 80 mmeters of Mercury, the prehypertension stage is established by the range of 120 to 139 / 80 to 89, stage 1 of hypertension is given by the range 140 to 159/ 90 to 99, And stage 2 ≥ 160 / 100.

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Hyperhomocystemia

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High levels of homocysteine in the blood.

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Blood lipids

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A variety of Carrier lipoproteins in blood, Including high density liproproteins, HDL's, low density lipoprotein's, LDL's, very low density lipoprotein's, VLDL's, and Chylomicron's.

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Serum Triglycerides

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Fat and cholesterol are packaged in Carrier proteins called lipo proteins. The protein component helps them to travel through the circulatory system. The protein lipo protein also serves as a communication piece with cell receptors. A few common different lipoproteins are made from triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein. Triglyceride rich lipoprotein fractions include Chylomicrons and Very low density lipoproteins. Chylomicrons are the lipoproteins Is made by intestinal cells after fat soluble substances undergo digestion and absorption. VLDL's are produced by liver cells and are converted to low density lipoprotein in the bloodstream after the triglycerides present in them are delivered to cells. When serum triglyceride levels are elevated, high chylomicrons and VLDL, this is called hypertriglyceridemia, high blood triglycerides, and is associated with heart disease Because serum triglycerides can thicken the blood. After consuming a low fat diet for 3 days before testing, a fasting 12 hour blood test is needed to determine an accurate triglyceride level. A level of less than 150 mg per deciliter is considered normal and a level greater than 150 mg per deciliter is considered high. A level of 450 mg per deciliter is so high and abnormal that pumping the blood is like pumping ketchup. With hypertriglyceridemia, The diet should be low and fat. Omega 3 fatty acid supplementation can reduce serum triglycerides. The intake of simple sugars and alcohol should be reduced to meet dietary recommendations.. This can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke as well as liver and pancreas problems.

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Serum cholesterol

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Most of the serum cholesterol packaged in the liver is in the form of low density lipoprotein and high density lipoprotein. Intermediate density lipo protein is present to a minor extent. These Lipoproteins are carriers of a variety of lipids and protein. The varying amount of cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and protein identifies the lipo protein. For example, high density lipo proteins contain more protein and less cholesterol than low density life proteins or intermediate density lipoprotein. Further, the function of the lipo proteins differ. High density lipo protein returns cholesterol to the liver for synthesis of myelin, bile, hormone's, and vitamin D. Low density lipoprotein transports cholesterol to cells throughout the body for function such as incorporation into cell membranes. Having a level of low density lipoprotein that is too high or of high density lipoprotein that is too low increases a person's risk for heart attack and stroke. The highest levels of high density lipo protein cholesterol have been reported in pre menopausal women who are arabically fit. Because post menopausal women have lost the protective effect of oestrogen, their level of low density lipo proteins may rise, thus increasing their risk of heart disease. Cholesterol levels increase with age, so it is important to know what your cholesterol levels are now and monitor them in the future in order to reduce the risk of coronary artery disease.

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Metabolic syndrome

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Metabolic Syndrome, also known as syndrome X or insulin resistance syndrome, is characterised by the presence of a set of metabolic risk factors associated with the development of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Metabolic syndrome includes 5 abnormalities, central adaposity, divided by a waste circumference greater than 40" in men and 35" in women. Fasting blood triglyceride level of 150 mg per deciliter or greater. Fasting blood high density lipo protein cholesterol level of less than 40 mg per deciliter in men and less than 50 mg per deciliter in women. Elevated blood pressure of 130 / 85 mmeters per Mercury or greater. Lastly, fasting blood glucose of 110 mg per deciliter or greater. Individuals having 3 or more of the five abnormalities are considered to have metabolic syndrome. It is estimated that nearly 47 million American Adults have metabolic syndrome, as evidenced by a constellation of abnormalities including disturbed Glucose metabolism, excess abdominal fat, dyslepidemia, and hypertension, sadly, becoming more common among young people and is linked to food processing techniques such as those employed to generate high fructose corn syrup and practicing unhealthy lifestyle behaviours.

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Thrifty gene theory

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This ties metabolic syndrome to the survival of the fittest concept but within a misfit Geno type in the present day environment. Normally genotypic changes occur very slowly and over many generations. Metabolic syndrome has become an emerging medical phenomenon only in about the past 20 years. What has occurred quickly is changes in our ways of living. The Genotype designed for hunter gatherers is Ill suited or in disequilibrium with today's industrialised food society and sedentary lifestyles. Humans who could efficiently use food and store energy as body fat resulting in weight gain would be able to survive tough times during the hunter gatherer existence. However, in modern day where people eat more energy dense foods and exercise less, these selected traits are undesirable and even detrimental. Studies of master athletes show that those who participate in competitive sports in their middle to later years have shown lipid profile similar to those of younger adults. Further, they have better glucose tolerance and waste circumferences compared to their sedentary counterparts. Thus they are at reduced risk for coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Other benefits include an active lifestyle include reduced risk for osteoporosis and the ability to eat more food energy and essential nutrients while maintaining a lower body weight than their sedentary counterparts. Exercise physiologist refer to the risk of metabolic syndrome as sedentary death syndrome.

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High fructose corn sweetener, not so sweet for metabolic syndrome

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High fructose corn sweetener Is made from the glucose syrup yield from cornstarch. A large percentage of the glucose molecules in that syrup are chemically altered to become fructose. 2 types include high fruit toast corn sweetener 55 and high fruit toast corn sweetener 42. 55 is 55% fruit toast and 45% glucose, and 42 is 42% fruit toast and 58% glucose. High fruit toast corn sweetener 55 is a particular concern. Many potential negative health effects have been associated with increased consumption Including metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is an epigenetic phenomenon, meaning that the expressions of the genes are influenced by the environment. This is clear by the way that the therapeutic lifestyle changes, TLC, diet and regular exercise can improve health markers and control the progression of the syndrome. More than 38 genes have been identified and associated with the manifestation of metabolic syndrome. One of the most influential underlying conditions of metabolic syndrome is insulin resistance. A diet containing high fructose corn sweetener has been shown to alter lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, notably lipid metabolism in the liver and in the insulin response. Because of the changes in liver metabolism, it is possible for the production of uric acid to increase. An increased level of uric acid increases insulin resistance. Finally, the intake of high fructose corn sweetener reduces the levels of 3 key hormones in weight control, insulin levels are lower, which is good, but chronic intake of high fructose Corn sweetener also reduces the leptin and ghrelin levels. Leptin Suppresses appetite and increases metabolic rate, thus favouring weight control. Ghrelin is also a hormone that suppresses appetite. It is hypothesised that these may be the mechanisms that promote weight gain. Chronic intakes of high fructose corn sweetener, more than 50 g or just over 3 tablespoons per day, alters liver and carbohydrate metabolism in unhealthy ways. There is supporting evidence that chronic, high intakes of high fructose corn sweetener and several potential mechanisms can explain the promotion of metabolic syndrome.

Front 57

Dyslipidemia

Back 57

This term describes the many abnormal circulating levels of blood lipids and/or lipoproteins that can occur. This could mean high, greater than or = 240 mg per deciliter, total serum cholesterol, hypercholesterolemia, high, greater than or = 150 mg per deciliter triglycerides, hyper triglyceridemia. Or any combination of these abnormal circulating lipo protein fractions.

Front 58

Dietary fat and lipo proteins

Back 58

The type of dietary fatty acids consumed influences the type of lipo proteins that the liver produces. Scientific studies have presented evidence to say that consuming a diet high in fat, And particularly In saturated fatty acids, increases total syrum cholesterol and low density lipo protein cholesterol, polyunsaturated fatty acids Decreases total syrum cholesterol and low density lipo protein and high density lipo protein cholesterol, mono unsaturated fatty acids decrease total syrum cholesterol and low density lipo protein and increases high density lipo protein, and higher intakes of dietary cholesterol can increase total cholesterol and low density lipo protein cholesterol in in some people. Phospholipids have not been implicated in the disease process. The adult treatment panel guidelines used to be called step one and step 2 diet, but they are now called the therapeutic lifestyle changes, TLC, diet.

Front 59

Oxidation and anti oxidants

Back 59

The double bonds of polyunsaturated fatty acids are weaker bonds and are more vulnerable to oxidation from reactive oxygen species and radicals. Following oxidation the double bond breaks, generating electron deficient lipid fragments that are chemically unstable and very sticky and damaging. Low density lifeprotein cholesterol commonly undergoes oxidation, and oxidized Low density lipoprotein cholesterol accelerates atherosclerosis plaque formation. The function of an antioxidant is to prevent and terminate oxidation reactions. Antioxidants donate needed electrons to these deficient molecules reducing reactivity. Is several essential nutrients function as antioxidants, either in water soluble cellular spaces or fat soluble cellular spaces. Low density lipo protein cholesterol is particularly susceptible to oxidative damage. Vitamin E can incorporate directly into low density lipo protein cholesterol packages. So it is especially good at blocking low density lipoprotein oxidation. Food sources of vitamin E include plant oils, wheat germ, whole grain, nuts, seeds, and to a lesser extent, dark green leafy vegetables. It's good to eat these foods as healthy sources of needed fat and vitamin E, but don't overdo their intake.

Front 60

Very low density lipo proteins

Back 60

The type of lipo protein cholesterol made primarily by liver cells to transport triglycerides to body cells.

Front 61

Hypertriglyceridemia

Back 61

A fasting syrum triglyceride level of 150 mg per deciliter or greater.

Front 62

Serum Tri glycerides

Back 62

The level of total triglycerides in the bloodstream, including Chylomicrons and very low density lipo proteins, it is at a desirable level when it is less than 150 mg per deciliter.

Front 63

Intermediate density lipo protein

Back 63

Lypo proteins that are transiently formed by the degradation of very low density lypo proteins to low density lipoproteins and do not promote or regress coronary artery disease.

Front 64

Central adiposity

Back 64

A waste circumference greater than 40" in men and greater than 35" in women.

Front 65

Dyslepidemia

Back 65

Is any combination of abnormal circulating lipo protein fractions of hypercholesterolemia, high low density lipoprotein cholesterol, low high density lipo protein cholesterol, and hyper triglyceridemia.

Front 66

Uric acid

Back 66

A nitrogen containing waste product generated from purine catabolism That contributes to gout and other illnesses.

Front 67

Hypercholesterolemia

Back 67

A fasting total blood cholesterol level of 240 mg per deciliter or greater.

Front 68

Oxidation

Back 68

Is the process of a substance combining with oxygen, resulting in the loss of an electron and the creation of a chemically unstable, more reactive, molecule.

Front 69

Reactive oxygen species

Back 69

Is highly unstable and reactive molecules produced as a byproduct of oxygen metabolism, which damaged cell structures unless stabilised by an antioxident.

Front 70

Antioxidant

Back 70

Is a chemical compound that can donate an electron without becoming chemically reactive itself, and thus can inhibit oxidation and reduce the damage that electron deficient chemicals cause.

Front 71

Hydrogenation and partial hydrogenation

Back 71

Is the process of hydrogenation involves removing the double bonds from polyunsaturated fatty acids and mono unsaturated fatty acids and adding hydrogen molecules to stabilise the carbon bonds, thus making the fats become more saturated. Carbon atoms in organic compounds are more stable, with 4 sights of bonding. In the hydrogenation process, The double bonds are removed, and hydrogen binding creates the stability at the 4 carbon binding sites. Adding hydrogen to the fatty acid chain while removing the double bonds hardens the fat. The harder the fat, the more saturated it is. Stick margin and shorting are highly hydrogenated and saturated. The problem with the process of hydrogenation and partial hydrogenation is that the unsaturated fatty acids become saturated, and trans fatty acids can be created.

Front 72

Hydrogenation

Back 72

a food processing technique that chemically forces the addition of hydrogen atoms by saturating mono unsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids, the double bonds are eliminated making the fat saturated, solid, resistant to oxidation, shelf stable, and less healthy.

Front 73

Partial hydrogenation

Back 73

Is a food processing technique that chemically forces partial saturation, addition of hydrogen atoms and the removal of the double bond's, of mono unsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acid's, which can generate transfatty acid configurations.

Front 74

Antioxidants in heart disease and cancer

Back 74

Antioxidants have become extremely popular molecules during the last decades as their benefits have become widely known. a radical is a chemical with an unpaired set of electrons, and a reactive oxygen species is an electron deficient molecule. An antioxidant supplies an electron to the radical molecules and reactive oxygen species, thus reducing their reactivity and damaging effects.These include vitamin E, vitamin C, and Beta carotene, pro vitamin a. Vitamin E is of interest in regard to heart disease because it is fat soluble and associates with lipids. In human trials, daily vitamin E intake levels of 134 mg have been shown to reduce oxidation of low density lipo protein cholesterol.

Front 75

Cis and trans fatty acids

Back 75

Cis fatty acids Are the natural Configuration of unsaturated fatty acids, in which the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond in the carbon chain. In the transfatty acid configuration, The hydrogen atoms are on the opposite side of the double bond in unsaturated fatty acid carbon chains. Since 2003 the nutrition labelling and education act regarding trans fatty acids, levels had been reduced in the US food supply and are nearly eliminated due to regulation. Foods from cattle, like red meat and dairy products, provide the greatest sources of trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids contribute to heart disease by increasing syrum low density lipo protein cholesterol and decreasing high density lipo protein cholesterol. An intake of 2% of calories from transfatty acids is more atherogenic Then an intake of 5% of calories from saturated fatty acids. furthermore, replacing 2% of the calories from transfatty acids with unhydrogenated, unsaturated fats reduces heart disease risk by up to 53%.

Front 76

Eicosanoides and fatty acids

Back 76

Inside the cells of the body, omega 3 fatty acids and omega 6 fatty acids are used to synthesise eicosanoids. These are biologically active compounds, such as prostaglandin's, derived from long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that help to regulate blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipids, inflammation, and other body functions. These chemical compounds are at least 20 carbons long. Some fatty acid derived eicosanoids Are called prostaglandins. These cause and array of biological activities, including inflammatory and Anti-inflammatory responses, as well as inflammatory responses, as well as influences that increase the tendency of blood to clot or not and make respiratory tissues or blood vessels relax or constrict. The prostaglandin effect is determined by whether it is made from omega 3 or omega 6 fatty acids. Omega 3 fatty acids are termed this way because the 1st sight of unsaturation, double bond, in the fatty acid chain is after the 3rd carbon from the omega, methyl, end of the molecule. Omega 6 acids have the 1st sight of unsaturation after the 6th carbon from the omega end of the molecule. The beneficial prosta glandins are made from omega 3, fish oils, and are highly unsaturated fatty acids, HUFAs. Some of the actions of omega 3 fatty acids include reducing blood clotting, blood pressure, and altering blood lipids. Specifically, they increase high density lipo protein and decrease low density lipo protein cholesterol levels. Additionally, they have also been found to improve immunity, Alleviate the discomforts associated with inflammatory disease, and reduce the severity of asthma. Popular dietary omega 3 fatty acids include eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA, and docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, both from fish, and the essential polyunsaturated fatty acid alpha leoneliac acid, from flax seeds, walnuts, and some plant oils. On the other hand, diet high in omega 6 fatty acids have been associated with inflammation and the growth of tumours. If too many prostaglandins made from omega 6 fatty acids are not balanced with those from the omega 3, wellness is definitely compromised.

Front 77

Recommended intakes of omega 3 and omega 6

Back 77

The American Heart Association recommends consuming 0.5 to 1.8 g of omega 3 fatty acids per day. Furthermore, they recommend an intake of 1.5 to 3 g of alpha linoleic acid, omega 3 fatty acid. Interestingly, dietary sources of various fatty acid types can be associated with geographic region. The closer the fat producing species is to the equator, the hotter the environmental temperature, and thus more solid and saturated fatty acids are present. The farther away from the equator, the colder the temperature, and thus more fluid and unsaturated fatty acids are present.

Front 78

Other factors affecting heart health

Back 78

Other note worthy lifestyle factors include appropriate intakes of folate and niacin, use of margin with plant stannels and omega 3 fatty acids, moderate intake of alcohol, especially red wine, and consuming soluble fibre and soy protein, along with a regular program of arobic physical activity.

Front 79

Role of folate

Back 79

Evidence shows that elevated levels of Homocysteine, an intermediary compound in the metabolism of the amino acids methanine and Cysteine that can build-up in the bloodstream when the diet is inadequate in folic acid, vitamin B6 and B12, which are all needed for metabolic conversion, Causes arterial wall damage, thus, it is established as an independent risk factor in contributing to heart disease. Elevated homocysteine levels are known as hypergomocysteinemia or homocysteinemia. The B vitamins are Required as enzyme CO factors to reduce Homocysteine levels in the blood. Is most people consume plenty of animal based foods providing enough vitamin B6 and B12, but not enough plant based foods providing folate. Is thus, consuming dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, and enriched grain products can improve heart health and normalise metabolism. Taking 400 μg of folic acid per day is Also safe and believe to be heart healthy. People with Homo sastemia can be successfully treated with folic acid supplementation.

Front 80

Role of Niacin

Back 80

High doses, 1000 to 4000 mg per day, of niacin, have been used to increase high density lipoprotein and decrease low density lipo protein cholesterol. Niacinamide Is is the usual form of vitamin B3 in dietary supplements and fortified foods and will not alter lipo protein fractions. The tolerable upper intake level for niacin is 35 mg per day for adults. Commonly, 50 mg of nicotinic acid will cause a flushing response and a slight lowering of low density lipo protein cholesterol and elevation of high density lipro protein cholesterol. Niacin supplementation is no longer used to alter blood lipids because of side effects of taking large enough doses.

Front 81

Role of Statins

Back 81

Prescription medications known as Statin type cholesterol lowering drugs reduce the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver by blocking the activity. Because these affect the liver, liver function needs to be routinely monitored. Some people experience negative side effects such as muscle pain and fatigue, which like abnormal liver function, can indicate serious ill effects of the drug. Red yeast rice also contains statin Compound and is effective for lowering blood cholesterol but the fda does not allow enough of the active ingredient in supplements to effectively control blood cholesterol. A natural plant stannel named benecol And added to some margin type spreads reduces the absorption of cholesterol in the digestive tract.

Front 82

Roll of soluble fibre

Back 82

Soluble fibre has been shown to decrease low density liprotein cholesterol without lowering high density lipro protein. Regular consumption of fiber from legumes, whole oats, and psyllium based natural fibre laxatives has been shown to reduce low density lipoprotein cholesterol overtime.

Front 83

Role of exercise

Back 83

Almost universally accepted by all health professionals is the effectiveness of daily Arabic physical activity as a heart disease prevention factor and general health promoter. Exercise, at least 30 minutes per day at 70% of maximum heart rate most days of the week, has been shown to increase high density lipoprotein cholesterol and decrease low density lipoprotein cholesterol and blood pressure.

Front 84

Lipids in cancer

Back 84

Cancer is a disease in which sells become abnormal and engage in uncontrolled cellular growth. Cancerous cells take nourishment from normal cells and their growth impairs normal tissue and organ functioning nearby. Cancer is the 2nd leading cause of death in American adults. The most prevalent types of adult cancers that are diet and lifestyle related include lung, breast, prostate, and colon cancer, followed by pancreas, oesophagus, stomach, and liver cancers. When cancer cell Is in a solid tissue such as long, breast, or prostate, a tumour forms. When it is in the bloodstream or derived from bone marrow, lukemia occurs. One thing all cancer cells have in common is uncontrolled cell growth. They become abnormally engaged in cellular division. Collectively, this is called carcinogenesis. The carcinogenic initiating and promoting agents could come from the environment or diet, coupled with metabolic activity and genetic pre disposition.

Front 85

Nutrition and cancer

Back 85

Individuals who consume calories in excess of their need and/or consume a high total fat diet have increased incidents of cancer and heart disease. The intake of too much total fat, more than 35% of total calories, and saturated fatty acids, more than 10% of total calories, promotes heart disease, and intake of too much total fat and polyunsaturated fatty acids promotes inflammation and cancer.

Front 86

Cancer and the impact of nutrition

Back 86

Cancer occurs through Carcinogenesis in a variety of ways, ultraviolet light, Radiation, chemicals in tobacco, and environmental pollutants can alter DNA and initiate cancer, or change a normal cell into an abnormal cell that engages in uncontrolled growth. High fat diets especially promote cancer of the breast and prostate. Diets low in antioxidant nutrients are believed to contribute to stomach, esophageal, and lung cancers, While low fibre diets are linked to increased colorectal cancer. After a normal cell undergoes initiation and promotion, it becomes a cancer cell that engages in progression, the cell engages in uncontrollable division and disrupts normal tissue function and can metastasize, move, to other sites in the body. At the point of progression, cancer treatment is needed and early detection is critical. Cancers that have metastasized are difficult to treat, so survival is reduced. However, some nutrients like retinoic acid, a form of vitamin a, have been used to treat precancerous lesions.

Front 87

Avoiding cancer

Back 87

When the diet meets the AMDR, as 20 to 35% of total calories from fat, limit saturated fatty acids and transfatty acid, is balanced in providing essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, and emphasises the consumption of more mono and saturated fatty acid, than health is optimised. Mono unsaturated fatty acid intake can approach 15% of total calories. Additionally, the AMDR for the essential fatty acids, linolek acid, omega 6, is 5-10%, and alpha linolek acid, omega 3, is 0.6-1.2% of calories Reduces the risk of heart disease. However, to improve the lipid profile, and intake of 2 to 4 g per day of the omega 3 fatty acids, DHA, and EPA, from fish or fish oil is needed. There is more To cancer the diatary fat. When a person's diet is low in fibre and phytochemicals from antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables, the cancer risk may be increased. Eating plant foods in rainbow of colours provides a safeguard from developing cancer. Individuals who use tobacco, drink alcohol, are sedentary, obese, and exposed to radiation, have an increased cancer risk. So, in general, eating a colourful plant based diet is balanced for coloric intake, fat, and type of fat and practicing a healthy lifestyle helps to prevent cancer.

Front 88

Digestion involving muscles and nerves

Back 88

Mechanical

Front 89

An excellent food source of fiber

Back 89

Legumes

Front 90

A soluble fibre found in apples

Back 90

Pectin

Front 91

Leading cause of arterial wall injury and atherosclerosis

Back 91

Hypertension

Front 92

Is action that moves food along the gastrointestinal tract

Back 92

Peristalsis

Front 93

Process causing protein shape to change in response to heat

Back 93

Denaturation

Front 94

Amino acid intermediate that causes arterial damage

Back 94

Homocysteine

Front 95

Organ that makes bile and stores glycogen

Back 95

Liver

Front 96

Clinical name for protein deficiency

Back 96

Kwashiorkor

Front 97

A risk factor for heart disease

Back 97

Obesity

Front 98

Disease caused by excess sugar in the bloodstream

Back 98

Diabetes

Front 99

Energy source of the brain

Back 99

Glucose

Front 100

Food group that decreases cancer risk

Back 100

Vegetables

Front 101

Fiber does what to transit time

Back 101

Decreases

Front 102

Hormone made in the pancreas to reduce blood sugar levels when needed

Back 102

Insulin

Front 103

Gall bladder secretion that emulsifies fat

Back 103

Bile

Front 104

Anabolic process by which plant cells make carbohydrates

Back 104

Photosynthesis

Front 105

Is people with type 2 diabetes usually have insulin

Back 105

Resistance

Front 106

Enzyme that breaks down starch

Back 106

Amylase

Front 107

Process generating sticky lipid fragments that increase atherosclerosis

Back 107

Oxidation

Front 108

Type of food that may contain trans fatty acids

Back 108

Processed

Front 109

protein type that has a uniform alpha helix or a Beta sheet formation

Back 109

Fibrous

Front 110

Transportation vessels for water soluble substances

Back 110

Blood

Front 111

Common allergic food

Back 111

Wheat

Front 112

Digestion

Back 112

Process that involves the breaking down of food into its components through chemical and mechanical processes.

Front 113

Mechanical digestion involves muscles and nerves for the chewing and mixing of food. What about chemical digestion?

Back 113

Involves chemical mediators like acid, enzymes, and hormones.

Front 114

What is an enzyme?

Back 114

An enzyme is a chemical compound that catalyses a biochemical reaction without being altered itself. An enzyme is a protein and an enzyme is necessary for most biochemical reactions to occur.

Front 115

Types of enzymes

Back 115

Amylase breaks down carbohydrates, a protease breaks protein, and lipase breaks down fat.

Front 116

Hormones

Back 116

Hormones are produced by cells at 1 site in the body, in an organ with an endocrine function, and regulate cells at a distal site in the body.

Front 117

Is give an example of a hormone that functions in digestion?

Back 117

Cholecystokinin and secretin are hormones that function in digestion

Front 118

Absorption can occur In 3 different ways

Back 118

Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport

Front 119

Passive diffusion

Back 119

Process that is governed by a concentration gradient, but allows free entry of a substance to cross a membrane.

Front 120

Facilitated diffusion

Back 120

Facilitated diffusion is a process that requires only a Carrier protein or a receptor in order to move a substance across the membrane. Facilitated diffusion is a selective transport mechanism.

Front 121

Active transport

Back 121

Is active transport is a process that requires a Carrier protein or receptor and energy, ATP, in order to move a substance across the membrane. Active transport is a selective transport mechanism.

Front 122

Do water soluble nutrients enter lymphatic vessels?

Back 122

No false

Front 123

Digestion is an anabolic process

Back 123

False

Front 124

Is the hydrolysis of glycogen is an anabolic process

Back 124

False

Front 125

The synthesis of protein is an anabolic process

Back 125

True

Front 126

Photosynthesis is considered an anabolic process

Back 126

True

Front 127

Kate is thinking about antioxidant-rich foods and trying to put into action what she has learned. She gets some guava juice and a spinach salad with grated carrots, chopped broccoli, cheese slices, and sunflower seeds sprinkled on top. Which antioxidant nutrients were present in kate's lunch?

Back 127

Vitamin C, vitamin E, and vitamin A.

Front 128

Karl says yeah well I have. I just like this kind of food hamburgers, French fries, milkshakes. I guess I have a high saturated fat diet. Kate says I think so. Carl says you know there are some good Things about this hamburger. Kate replies well why don't you share them with me.

Back 128

Is the hamburger provides complete protein, the hamburger helps prevent Kwashiorkor, the hamburger bun provides a source of complex carbohydrate.

Front 129

Risk for heart disease

Back 129

Eating high saturated fat foods, Is being a male, and therefore a higher risk for heart disease early in life, are physically inactive and this puts you at risk for heart disease, I don't know what your total blood cholesterol level is, but if it's greater than 240 mg per deciliter you would be considered at risk for heart disease. And smoking cigarettes. All of the above.

Front 130

Quick onset excretion, diarrhea

Back 130

The cheese caused it because she has inherited lactose intolerance

Front 131

Peristalsis is occurring in the gastro intestinal tract. What is this?

Back 131

Is the muscular wave action of the gastrointestinal tract, that facilitates excretion, is controlled by the autonomic, central, nervous system, propels chyme through the body. All of the above.

Front 132

What happens after eating, digesting, and absorbing a candy bar?

Back 132

It increases, but then insulin is released from the pancreas and causes the blood sugar level to decrease.

Front 133

Insulin has an anabolic effect

Back 133

True

Front 134

allergies, antibodies, and antigens

Back 134

An allergy is an immune reaction to a foreign substance or antigen. An antibody is a large circulating protein produced by the immune system in response to an invasion by a foreign substance. An antigen is usually a protein that elicits antibody production in the body.

Front 135

Who would benefit specifically from increasing soluble fibre intake?

Back 135

Heart disease

Front 136

Which nutrient is not added in the enrichment process for refined grains?

Back 136

Zinc

Front 137

Which food has the lowest glycemic index

Back 137

Apple

Front 138

Which lipo protein fractions carries predominantly triglycerides?

Back 138

VLDL

Front 139

Therapeutic lifestyle changes diet

Back 139

Plant stanol/sterol Intake should be 2 g per day

Front 140

Proteins inside the body

Back 140

Synthesised proteins are of 2 basic types, fibrous and globular

Front 141

Cis Is the natural configuration of hydrogen positions on the carbon molecules in the double bond of unsaturated fatty acids.

Back 141

True

Front 142

Is consuming enough omega 3 fatty acids positively affect heart health by increasing high density lipoprotein and decreasing low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

Back 142

True

Front 143

Is consuming a diet high in total fat promotes breast and prostate cancer

Back 143

True

Front 144

The excess intake of dietary protein, with normal calorie intake, has no known negative health implications.

Back 144

False

Front 145

Protein character is ultimately determined by amino acid dietary adequacy.

Back 145

False

Front 146

A blood pressure measurement of 110 / 60 mmeters per Mercury

Back 146

Is optimal

Front 147

An HDL cholesterol measurement of 36 mg/dl

Back 147

Increases disease risk

Front 148

An LDL cholesterol measurement of 185 mg/dl

Back 148

Increases disease risk

Front 149

A total cholesterol measurement of 170 mg per deciliter

Back 149

Is optimal

Front 150

hypoglycemia means

Back 150

Low blood sugar

Front 151

Protein synthesis requires

Back 151

MRNA translation

Front 152

Is collective name for initiation, promotion, and progression

Back 152

Carcinogenesis

Front 153

One water soluble antioxidant is

Back 153

Vitamin C

Front 154

Process by which plants make carbohydrates

Back 154

Photosynthesis

Front 155

Is a fasting blood glucose measurement of 160 mg per deciliter

Back 155

Increases disease risk

Front 156

Which Organ is responsible for the release of sodium by carbonate, a chemical need Ed to neutralise stomach acid?

Back 156

Pancreas

Front 157

What is known as an accessory organ in the digestive process?

Back 157

Gall bladder

Front 158

What happens mostly in the large intestine, colon?

Back 158

Water is absorbed

Front 159

Fat absorption is aided by emulsification with bile.

Back 159

True

Front 160

What type of mechanism requires a selective protein carrier and ATP energy

Back 160

Is active transport

Front 161

What happens 1st, protein denaturation or protein digestion

Back 161

Denaturation

Front 162

What is the correct process of protein synthesis?

Back 162

Dna is transcribed to MRNA which is transcribed to protein

Front 163

High protein diets can deplete the body of?

Back 163

Water, calcium, vitamin B

Front 164

Lactate's persistence is tied to human bioccultural evolution?

Back 164

False

Front 165

Protein need is based on?

Back 165

Body weight

Front 166

Insoluble fibre decreases transit time.

Back 166

True

Front 167

Is homeostasis involves a balance of anabolic and catabolic reactions.

Back 167

True

Front 168

Is which lypo protein contains the most cholesterol?

Back 168

Low density lipo proteins

Front 169

Hypoglycemia is characterised by low blood sugar

Back 169

True

Front 170

Hypoglycemia is the criteria for diabetes

Back 170

False

Front 171

In whole grain processing, the amount of fibre, vitamins, minerals are decreased.

Back 171

True

Front 172

Which provides the best food source of fiber

Back 172

Carrots

Front 173

Fibre binds vitamins and minerals

Back 173

True

Front 174

Soluble fiber include

Back 174

Is pectin, gum, mucilage.

Front 175

Enzymes can require vitamin or mineral CO factors for their function

Back 175

True