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210 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Epidemiology
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Study/comparison of populations
Coincidence/correlation among factors and conditions |
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Cohort study
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Prospective
Start with a healthy population and follow them over time, looking for the development of disease. |
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Case-control studies
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Retrospective
Cases (with the disease) matched with control (without the disease) in every relevant particular |
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Clinical trial
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gives humans a drug, supplement, etc. and observes effects
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meta-analysis
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summarizes multiple studies
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Food
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The source of nutrients.
A source of enjoyment A reflection of our social fabric and cultural heritage adds valued dimensions to our lives. |
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Nutrients
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Chemical substances in food that provide nourishment. Nutrients provide energy, growth, regulation, protection, etc
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Essential Nutrient
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Omission from the diet leads to a decline in function and human health
Restored to diet before permanent damage brings regain in function A specific biological function must be identified |
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What is a calorie?
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“the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius”
Food is measured in kilocalories (kcal) “Calories” on the nutrition label are in kcal |
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How many calories per gram do carbohydrates have?
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4 kcal/gram
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How many calories per gram does protein have?
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4 kcal/gram
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How many calories per gram does fat have?
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9 kcal/gram
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Define odds ratio
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compares relative odds in each group
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Define relative risk
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compares probability of death in each group
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Define DRI
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Dietary Reference Intake
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Define EAR
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Estimated Average Requirement
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Define RDA
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Recommended Dietary Allowance
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Define AI
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Adequate Intake
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Define UL
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Upper Limit
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Define EER
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Estimated Energy Requirement
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Define DV
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Daily value
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Define RDI
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Reference Daily Intake
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Define DRV
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Dietary Reference Values
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What does ABCMV stand for?
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Adequacy
Balance Calorie Control Moderation Variety |
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Define Nutrient Density
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Ratio derived by dividing a food's contribution to nutrient needs by its contribution to energy needs. When its contribution to nutrient needs exceeds its energy contribution, the food is considered to have a favorable nutrient density
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Define Energy Density
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Comparison of the energy content of a food with the weight of the food. An energy-dense food is high in energy but weighs very little (many fried foods) whereas a food low in energy density (an orange) weighs a lot but is low in energy content
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At most how much of your daily calories should be from saturated or trans fats?
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less than 10%
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At most how many mg per day should you eat cholesterol?
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300 mg
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What is the AMDR for fat?
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20-35% of calories, most from unsaturated sources
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Choose foods with less than ______ mg or _____ tsp salt
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2300 mg or 1 tsp
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What is the AMDR for fat for children 2-3 yrs, 4-18 yrs?
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30-35% and 25-35%
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What are the major nutrient contributors of milk?
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Calcium, Phosphorous
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What are the major nutrient contributors of meat and beans?
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Protein, Thiamin and Riboflavin
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What are the major nutrient contributors of fruit?
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Carbs, Vitamin A & C, folate, fiber
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What are the major nutrient contributors of vegetables?
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Carbs, Vitamin A & C, folate, fiber
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What are the major nutrient contributors of grains?
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Carbs, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Folate
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What are the major nutrient contributors of oils?
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Fats, essential fatty acids
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Define Phytochemicals
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Chemicals in functional foods that are plants that may provide benefits and are not traditional essential nutrients.
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Define Functional Foods
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foods that provide health benefits beyond those supplied by traditional nutrients.
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What are the sources of Phytoestrogens and what do they prevent?
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(isoflavones) (soy) - hormone-related cancers
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What are the sources of Catechins and what do they prevent?
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(tea) – cancer
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What are the sources of Sulfur Compounds and what do they prevent?
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(garlic) – cancer, heart disease
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What are the sources of Resveratol and what do they prevent?
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(grapes, red wine) – heart disease, cancer?
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What are appropriate uses of the DRI?
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Diet planning
Aim for RDA or AI Do not exceed the UL For the healthy population |
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What are some chronic diseases with both a genetic and nutritional link
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CVD, stroke, hypertension, obesity, cancer, osteoporosis, aging, longevity
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Define Chromosome
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structural unit of genetic material
single, linear double-stranded DNA molecule many genes |
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Define Gene
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physical and functional unit of heredity
DNA sequence for functional protein or RNA |
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What is a mutation
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a permanent, heritable change in the nucleotide sequence of a chromosome, usually in a single gene
usually leads to a change in or loss of function of the gene product |
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What is a polymorphism
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different DNA sequences at the same point in the same gene among different individuals
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What is an allele?
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2 copies (one from mother, one from father) of each gene
A specific DNA sequence found at a gene locus Each different DNA sequence at a locus is a different allele. |
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Define nutrigenomics
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Effects of nutrients on the genome
Regulation of gene expression Attempts to understand how genome is expressed as a response to diet. |
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Define nutrigenetics
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Effect of genetic variation on
nutrient metabolism diet-disease response to food components |
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What was the Selenium Study?
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Nutrigenomic research
Demonstration that intake of the essential nutrient selenium stabilizes (allows it to last longer) the mRNA for an enzyme that protects cells against “free radicals” that can cause cellular damage, cancer, aging and decreased longevity. |
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What is the Gene-diet interaction and plasma lipid responses to dietary intervention Study?
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Nutrigenetics study
Different genotypes led to different levels of HDL cholesterol |
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What is the CYP1A2 Coffee study?
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CYP1A2 is a polymorphic enzyme that metabolizes caffeine.
Individuals with the *1A allele are “rapid” caffeine metabolizers Carriers of the variant *1F allele are “slow” caffeine metabolizers |
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Glucose
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Most common monosaccharide in body
Synonyms: dextrose, blood sugar Converted into glycogen, lactic acid, or fat |
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Fructose
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Fruit, honey, high fructose corn syrup
Converted to glucose in liver |
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Galactose
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Lactose
Converted to glucose in liver |
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What makes formation of alpha and beta bonds possible?
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Dynamic rotation of the glycosidic carbon
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Digestible between glucose units e.g. maltose
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alpha bond
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Are alpha bonds up or down?
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down
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Non-digestible between glucose units e.g. cellulose. (Lactose has a galactose beta bond human lactase does digest.)
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beta bond
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Are beta bonds up or down?
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up
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How are disaccharides bound?
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Condensation reactions
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What are the two oligosaccharides?
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Raffinose and Stachyose
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What are the food sources of oligosaccharides?
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Beans and legumes
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Undigested oligosaccharides may be fermented by what and where
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By bacteria in the large intestine
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What monosaccharides is raffinose made of?
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Galactose-Glucose-Fructose
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What is stachyose made of?
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Galactose-Galactose-Glucose-Fructose
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What are the digestable polysaccharides?
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Starches (amylose, amylopectin, MFS)
Glycogen |
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What is the indigestable polysaccharide?
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Fiber
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What are examples of insoluble fiber?
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Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins (non-CHO)
Vegetables, whole grains, seeds |
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What are examples of soluble fiber?
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Gums, pectins, mucilages
Fruit, vegetable, rice bran, psyllium seed |
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Bacterial Metabolism
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produces acids and gases, yields 3 kcal/gm
enhances health of large intestinal cells |
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What is pectin made of?
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Galactose beta bonded
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What type of beta bond between monosaccharides can be digested by human enzymes?
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The bond found in lactose
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What are the functions of carbohydrates?
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Energy
Protein sparing Prevent ketosis |
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Electrolyte imbalance from ketosis
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Loss of K and Na with excretion of ketone bodies
Dehydration (water follows K and Na) |
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Can fetuses become ketotic?
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it is neurotoxic to them
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Ketosis leads to metabolic __________
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Metabolic acidosis (leads to insulin resistance, depletion of buffers)
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You can get kidney stones from ketosis T/F
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True
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What is Hyperpnea and what is it caused by?
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Rapid, deep breathing
ketosis |
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What can happen in uncontrolled ketosis?
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Coma or death
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How many grams of carbs do you need to prevent ketosis?
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50-100 g CHO prevents
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What is the RDA of carbs for adults?
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130 g/day
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What is the EAR for carbs?
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100 g/day
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What is the AMDR for carbs
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45-65% total energy
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How much of your intake should simple sugars be?
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<10%
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What is the actual intake of carbs per day of Americans, how much of total energy is that, what are the sources?
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180-330 g/d
50% of total energy (~70% in some countries) Primary sources: white bread, sodas, baked goods |
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What are the three foci for CHO?
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Choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables and whole grains often
Use little added sugars or caloric sweeteners Have good oral hygiene |
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What are the effects of soluble, fermentable fiber?
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Aids weight control and reduces risk of obesity
Slows glucose absorption Inhibits absorption of cholesterol May(?) reduce risk for some cancers |
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Why does fiber reduce risk of cancer?
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Carcinogens are diluted by fluids attracted to the fiber
Carcinogens are bound to fiber Carcinogens are more rapidly excreted because fiber decreases transit time |
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What are the effects of Insoluble, non/poorly fermentable fiber?
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Promotes softer, larger stool and regularity
Builds intestinal muscles Less pressure to eliminate Therefore, decreases risk of hemorrhoids diverticula (diverticulosis, diverticulitis) |
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What are examples of cellulose?
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skins of fruits, vegetables, legumes, celery, whole grains
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What are examples of hemicellulose?
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whole grains and cereal fibers, some vegetables
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What are examples of lignins?
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seeds of fruits, bran layers of whole grains
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What is dietary fiber?
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nondigestible CHOs,lignin intrinsic,intact in plants
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What is functional fiber?
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isolated, added non-digestible CHOs with beneficial effects in humans
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Dietary + Functional =
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Total Fiber
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What is the Fiber AI?
For men? For women? |
14g/1000 kcal
Men 19-50 38 g/day Women 19-50 25g/day |
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What is the average intake of fiber for Americans?
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13-17g/day
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How much fiber is excessive for a day?
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60 g/day
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Problems associated with excessively high fiber diets
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requires high fluid intake
hard and painful stool binds important minerals (Ca, Zn, Fe) intestinal gas, discomfort most fibers, particularly raffinose and stachyose in beans insufficient energy intake in children |
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What is the DV for fiber?
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25-30 for 2000-2500 kcal diets
Ave. U.S. intake: 13 (women) 17 (men) |
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How high of a percentage of total calories per day does sugar need to start having a negative effect on your diet?
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>25%
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What is the average percentage of daily calories that is added sugars in American diets?
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16% 82g/day
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young children can exceed ____% added sugar a day
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50%
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Is high fructose corn syrup uniquely responsible for obesity?
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no, added fats are a culprit
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What are the consequences of high sugar diets?
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Low nutrient density
Excess calories Dental caries Acid formed by bacteria Offending foods are sticky or gummy Rinse mouth with water after eating Heart disease, diabetes, hyperactivity, juvenile delinquency - NOT |
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What are the nutritive sweeteners?
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High fructose corn syrup, brown sugar, maple syrup, honey, sugar alcohols
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Aspartame (Nutrasweet)
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Aspartame (NutraSweet)
Phenylalanine, aspartic acid, methanol 180-200x sweeter than sucrose Not heat stable Complaints PKU and pregnancy |
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What happens to blood glucose after you eat?
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1. Elevated blood glucose
2. Pancreas releases insulin 3. Glucose transported into cells 4. Conversion of glucose into glycogen 5. Normalization of blood glucose |
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What happens to blood glucose when fasting?
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1. low blood glucose
2. Pancreas releases glucagon 3. breakdown of glycogen 4. Conversion of glycogen into glucose 5. Normalization of blood glucose |
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What is Type I diabetes?
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destruction of pancreatic beta cell
virus or foreign protein association |
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What is Type II diabetes?
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Insulin receptors, insulin resistance
Correct obesity, often disappears |
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Degenerative diseases from uncontrolled blood glucose?
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nerve damage,
heart disease, kidney disease, blindness Atherosclerosis Increased risk for wound infections |
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Glycemic Index
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the relative ability of a carbohydrate to raise blood glucose compared with the ability of a standard (white bread or glucose) to raise blood glucose.
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Glycemic Load
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takes into account amount of CHO/serving
GL = GI X (gr CHO/serving) / 100 GL more realistic than GI because of serving size. |
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What affects glycemic index?
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Starch or sugar structure (e.g. baking vs red potatoes; glucose vs fructose), Amount of starch/sugar, Physical structure (e.g. whole vs mashed potatoes), Processing, Food temperature,Fiber, Digestion rate, Fat, Protein
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High GL health concerns
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Stimulates release of insulin
Insulin increases blood triglycerides Insulin increases LDL Insulin increases fat synthesis Increases risk for CVD Returns to hunger quicker Muscle cells may become resistant to insulin over time with high glycemic load |
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Does slowly or rapidly available glucose improve brain function?
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Slowly available glucose
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Primary lactose intolerance
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Genetic loss of expression of lactase gene. Not due to another disease
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Secondary lactose intolerance
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Temporary loss of lactase, develops as a result of another disease or treatment.
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What are other sources of Ca besides dairy products?
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Asian diets, fish bones
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What kinds of dairy products can those with lactose intolerance tolerate easier?
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Cheese and yogurt
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What are the four classes of lipids?
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Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols
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Stearic acid
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18 carbons, saturated
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Oleic acid
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18 carbons, monounsaturated omega-9
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Linoleic acid
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18 carbons, polyunsaturated omega-6
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Linolenic acid
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18 carbons, polyunsaturated omega-3
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What are the two essential fatty acids?
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Linoleic and Linolenic acid
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Two types of unsaturated fatty acids
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cis and trans
hydrogens are either on separate sides of the double bond or the same side |
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Triglyceride properties
longer chain- shorter chain- |
longer- harder
shorter- softer |
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More saturated more ________
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solid
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What is hydrogenation?
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formation of trans fatty acids
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What are the functions of fatty acids?
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Immune function, vision, cell membrane, eicosanoids (EPA, DHA)
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What are the symptoms of fatty acid deficiency?
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flaky, itchy skin, hair loss,
diarrhea, infections, anemia retarded growth and wound healing |
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Excess ω-6s increase risk of ______________
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myocardial infarction
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Excess ω-3s increase risk of ______________
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hemorrhagic stroke
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___________ balance determines blood clotting, risk of MI vs HS
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Eicosanoid
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What are functions of triglycerides in the body?
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Energy: main fuel for muscles at rest
Energy storage Protect and insulate Absorption and transport of fat soluble vitamins |
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What are functions of triglycerides in food?
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satiety
flavor and texture |
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What are the functions of phospholipids in the body?
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Bilayer-membranes
Emulsifying agent |
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What are the functions of sterols?
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Hormones - corticosteroids, estrogen, testosterone, vitamin D precursor
Bile acid precursor Cell membrane structure |
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What are the food sources of essential fatty acids?
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EPA, DHA – 2 fish meals per week
Soybean oil, canola oil also supply ω-3s |
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What are the food sources of triglycerides?
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Animal and Plant products
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What are the food sources of phospholipids?
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oil and water emulsions
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What are the food sources of sterols
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Animal products only
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What is the AI for linoleic acid for men, for women?
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men-17g/day
women-12g/day |
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What is the AI for linolenic acid for men, for women?
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men- 1.6g/day
women- 1.1g/day |
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Why isn't there an AI or RDA for total fat or cholesterol?
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There is insufficient data to determine a defined level of fat intake at which risk of inadequacy or prevention of chronic disease occurs
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What is the AMDR for fat?
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20-35%
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What are the effects of excessive of trans fatty acids?
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Raise LDL, lower HDL
Increase CHD risk Current intake ~3% of total kcals Consumption relatively constant |
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What is the order of fats in a centrifuge?
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chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL
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What is a chylomicron, what is it's function?
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Triglyceride
carries dietary fat from the small intestine to the cells |
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What is VLDL, what is it's function?
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Triglyceride,
carries lipids both taken up and made by the liver to the cells |
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What is LDL, what is it's function?
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Cholesterol
carries cholesterol made by the liver and from other sources to the cell |
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What is HDL, what is it's function?
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Protein
helps remove cholesterol from cells and, in turn, excretion of cholesterol from the body |
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Saturated fatty acids promote an increase in the amount of ____________ in the liver
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free cholesterol
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As free cholesterol in the liver increases, it causes the liver to reduce cholesterol uptake from the bloodstream, contributing to elevated ____ in the blood.
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LDL
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Hyperlipidemia
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>200 mg/dl of total cholesterol
HDL < 40 mg/dl LDL > 160 TG > 200 |
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Amphipathic
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both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
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Micelle
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an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid.
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What is the role of messenger RNA?
|
It transfers DNA information to the cytosol where it used in the synthesis of a protein.
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What is a weakness of relying on clinical evidence to evaluate nutritional status?
|
A deficiency may exist for a long time before symptoms are evident.
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What is a cross-over study?
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Like a matched pairs study, two groups one takes the placebo first, other treatment, then they switch
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What is a meta-analysis study?
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Combines many studies to make a stronger argument
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What is the Framingham heart study?
|
Longitudinal study
Heart disease |
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What is the Seven Countries Study?
|
Cohort Study
Risks of heart disease |
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What is NHANES?
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Cross sectional national surveys
nutrition and disease |
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What is the Baltimore Longitudinal Study on Aging?
|
longitudinal
see the effect of aging |
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Honolulu Heart Program
|
examined every 10 years
Heart disease, hypertension Dementia |
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What is MRFIT
|
Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial
some received special intervention or usual care at risk for heart disease not successful |
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What is the Nurses' Health Study?
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Growing Up Today Study- children still going
followed nurses- oral contraceptives |
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Physician's Health Study
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aspirin reduces risk of heart attack
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Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System
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phone survey
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Women's Health Initiative
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some given just estrogen some estrogen and progestin
estrogen-leads to stroke ended early |
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Do all of these have both a nutritional and genetic component:
heart disease, obesity, breast cancer, hypertension |
yes- both nutritional and genetic
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What's the next best thing if there is no RDA?
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an AI
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Which is less credible public comments or New York Times best sellers?
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New York Times best seller
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Which is not an emphasis in the DGA for carbs:
added sugar fiber ketosis dental heath |
ketosis
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People with PKU should avoid what type of alternative sweetener?
|
aspartame
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If your fiber intake is about 60 g/day what are you at risk for?
|
phytobezoars and mineral deficiencies
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Which is a digestable starch?
amylose cellulose stachyose lignin |
amylose
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T/F pectins, gums and mucilages can lower serum cholesterol
|
True
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Do carbohydrates provide carbon skeletons for structural support?
|
no
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What are the two functions of triglycerides?
|
provide energy, transport fat-soluble vitamins
|
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Which fatty acid is needed to synthesize eicosanoids?
|
alpha-linolenic acid
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**Too many omega-3's put you at risk for?
|
hemorrhagic stroke
|
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What is the AMA definition of nutrition?
|
look it up!
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What did manufacturers change to Olestra to return it to the market?
|
added fat soluble vitamins
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Is total cholesterol over 240 mg/dl a risk for heart disease?
|
yes
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eating fatty fish gives you what fatty acid?
|
omega-3 fatty acid
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Why is there not any level of intake recommended for fat?
|
there's not a defined level of fat intake at which adverse effects occur
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Can body tissues make cholesterol?
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yes
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What are the risk factors for chronic degenerative diseases?
|
lifestyle, genetics and diet
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Which lipoprotein is made in the liver takes triglycerides from the liver to the body?
|
VLDL
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Does VLDL or LDL carry more cholesterol?
|
LDL
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Framingham study
|
heart disease study - involved participants children and grandchildren
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Nurses' Health Study
|
cohort study - diet-disease relationships in women
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Physician's Health Study
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men - supplementation and heart disease
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RDA/AI for Carbs
|
supply glucose to the brain and nerves
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RDA/AI for fiber
|
amount you need to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease
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RDA/AI for essential fatty acids
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average in US without defiicency
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lecithin
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triglyceride with phosphate and carbon nitrogen chain
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amylose
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alpha bonded glucose
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amylopectin
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amylose - alpha bonded glucose and branches of more amylose
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alpha-linolenic acid
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18 C
omega-3, also double bond at 6C and 9C |
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linoleic acid
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18C
omega-6, also double bond at 9C |
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oleic acid
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18C
omega-9 |
