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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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change of shift report
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given orally in person, by audiotape recording, or during rounds at each client's bedside
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telephone report
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to inform MD's of clients condition or to communicate info to nurses on other units about a client transfer
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telephone orders (TO)
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involves a physician stating a prescribed order over the phone to an RN
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verbal order (VO)
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may be accepted when there is no opportunity for a MD to write an order
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incident reports
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any event that is not consistant with the routine operation of the unit. Ex. client falls
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Environment
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all of the physical and psychosocial factors that influence or affect the life and survival of that client
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what are basic needs of environment safety?
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Oxygen: monitor pt.'s O2 saturation, if 94% or less dr. may order O2 for pt.
Nutrition: monitor pt.'s food intake and input and output Optimal temp. and humidity: is temp. of room comfortable for pt? |
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what are physical safety of environmental safety?
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Accidents: falls are most common cause of hospital admissions for older adults
Lighting: adequate lighting decreases falls and other injuries Obstacles: cause falls for all age groups Bathroom hazards: slipping in tub, burns from water that is too hot Security: fires, break-ins, lead and carbon monoxide poisoning |
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pathogens and their transmission
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a pathogen is any microorganism capable of producing an illness
Hand hygiene and immunizations are effective ways of reducing transmission of pathogens. |
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Immunizations
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Active immunity is acquired by injecting a small amount of weakened or dead organisms or modified toxins from the organism into the body
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Exposure
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Due to the risk, universal precautions must be followed when caring for all patients. Use gloves, masks, eye protection as needed.
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Pollution
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A harmful chemical or waste material discharged into the water, soil, or air.
Ex. land, water, air and noise pollution |
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Terrorism/Bioterrism
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The use of biological, chemical or nuclear weapons in an attack.
Anthrax, smallpox, botulism and plague though to be likely agents used |
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Anthrax
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Bacillus anthracis, a spore forming, gram + bacillus. Transmitted through skin contact, ingestion, inhalation. Clinical features: pulmonary: flu like symptoms, possible brief interim improvement, abrupt onset of resp failure, shock, hemodynamic collapse and death w/n 24-48 hrs. Cutaneous: local skin involvment common on head, forearms, hands, itching followed by papular lesions that turn vesicular & then depressed black eschar. GI: pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, bloody diarrhea, hematemesis
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Botulism
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Clostridium botulinum, anaerobic gram + bacillus that produces potent neurtoxin, air borne possible but food borne most common. Clinical features:food borne causes abdominal cramping, diarrhea, drooping eyelids, weakened jaw clench, difficulty swallowing & speaking, blurred & double vision, symmetric paralysis of arms 1st, thenby resp muscles, then legs. Resp dysfunction from resp muscles paralysis. No sensory deficits.
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Plague
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Gram - bacterial disease. Attack expected to be airborne. Clinical features: fever, cough, chest pain, hemoptysis w/n 24 hrs of symptom onset
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Smallpox
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viral illness that has potential to cause severe morbitity in nonimmune population. Airborne. Clinical features: vesicular skin lesions on face & extremities, fever, flu like symptoms, rash on face & extremities
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Post exposure management
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Hospitals must have emergency 4 phase plan, nurses must be prepared thru education & training.
1st: Mitigation: identify the kinds of emergency situations most likely to occur and their impact. 2nd: Preparedness: steps taken to increase hospital's ability to manage effects of attack. 3rd: Response; steps taken by staff in the event of attack e.g. disease reporting, decontamination. 4th: Recovery: steps taken to recover to normal operation. |
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What is the leading cause of death in children over 1?
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Injuries, many of which are preventable. Parents need to be aware of specific dangers at each stage of growth and development.
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List individual risk factors for safety
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Lifestyle: stress, fatigue, ETOH use increases risk for accidents.
Impaired mobility: major factor in client falls. Sensory or communication impairment: increase risk for injury, e.g., client may not be able to communicate need for assistance. Lack of safety awareness: some clients are unaware of safety precautions e.g., keeping meds or poisons away from children. |
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Safety precautions for infants and toddlers
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-have infants sleep on back
-never leave child alone in bathroom or near water source -baby proof the home -cover electrical outlets -remove plastic bags discontinue use of items such as infant seats and swings when appropriate -use of age/weight appropriate car seat/booster that is installed correctly -caregivers should learn infant/child CPR & heimlich |
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Safety precautions to preschoolers
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-teach children swim but always supervise near water
-how to cross street and walk in parking lots -basic physical safety such as not running w/scissors or mouth, not to use stove -not to eat found items -not to talk or accept things from strangers |
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Safety precautions for school age children
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-bicycle safety, use of helmets
-proper technique for sports -not to operate electrical equipment unsupervised |
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Safety precautions for adults
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Lifestyle habits: driving under the influence, drugs
Stress: adults who are experiencing stress, anxiety, fatigue, or drug/alcohol withdrawal, or those on prescribed meds may be more accident prone or suffer from illness such as headaches, GI disorders and infections Inadequate nutrition lack of exercise |
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Safety precautions for adolescent
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-driver's ed
-sex education -safe use of internet -drug/alcohol education -encourage mentoring between adults and adolescent |
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Physiological changes in the older adult
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-alterations in vision & hearing
-slowed reaction time -decrease in strength, flexibility, and ROM -impaired memory -Nocturia and incontinence more frequent -higher prevalence of chronic conditions *these increase risks for falls and other accidents |
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Nursing diagnoses related to patient safety
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risk for injury
deficient knowledge risk for poisoning risk for trauma disturbed sensory perception |
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Risks in the health care setting
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-Medical errors: 44,000 to 98,000 Americans die each yr as a result, 8th leading cause of death.*Always do 6 checks!
-Falls: 90% of all reported occur in hospitals, higher incidence for elderly. Many happen occur when pt. trying to get out of bed to use toilet. Have pt. call for help 1st, provide bedside commode, have pt. sit on bed for 1-2 min before getting up -Client-inherent accidents: client primarily reason for accident: seizures, self inflicted, pinching fingers in door or drawers -Equipment related accidents: malfunctions, misuse of equipment e.g., too rapid infusion of IV fluids due to dysfunctional IV pump |
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skin structure
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Epidermis-top layer
Dermis-inner layer These are separated by a membrane called the dermal-epidermal junction. Stratum corneum is the outermost layer & is comprised of flattened, dead, keratinized cells. Cells originate from the innermost layer, the basal layer |
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changes in skin due to age
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age can alter skin characteristics & make skin more vulnerable to damage: dryness, decreased ability to sense pressure, decreased peripheral circulation, diminished inflammatory response results in slow wound healing, hypodermis decreases in size
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pressure ulcer
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impaired skin integrity related to unrelieved, prolonged pressure.
-any pt experiencing decreased mobility, decreased sensory perception, fecal or urinary incontinence &/or poor nutrition can be at risk. -Pathogenesis: pressure intensity, pressure duration, tissue tolerance |
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pressure intensity
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causes capillary collapse which causes tissue ischemia (loss of blood supply due to obstructin of blood vessels)
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tissue tolerance
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ability of tissue to endure pressue-depends on integrity of the tissue and supporting structures
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Risk factors for pressure ulcer development
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-impaired sensory perception
-impaired mobility -alteration in level of consciousness -shear: gravity pushing down on the body such as when elevating the head of the bed friction: skin dragged rather than lifted from bed surface -moisture: reduces skins resistance to pressure and softens skin making it more susceptible to damage |
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classification of pressure ulcers
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-stage 1: persistant red, blue or purple tones, no open skin areas
-stage 2: partial thickness skin loss, presents as an abrasion or blister -stage 3: full thickness skin loss w/damage or necrosis of subcutaneous tissue, presents as a deep crater -stage 4: full thickness skin loss w/extensive destruction, necrosis, or damage to muscle, bone or other structures |
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skin intefrity wound classification
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open: break in skin
closed: no break in skin acute: heals in a timely manner chronic: does not heal in timely manner cause: intentional (e.g., surgery vs unintentional e.g., injury severity of injury: superficial, (epidermal layer) penetrating, (break in dermis & epidermal layer), perforating, (foreign object enters and exists an internal organ) |
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wound classification continued
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cleanliness, clean: contains no pathogenic organisms
clean-contaminated: under aseptic conditions but normally harbors mircroorganisms, (e.g., surgical wound entering GI tract) contaminated: e.g., accidental wounds/surgical wounds w/break in asepsis infected: bacterial organisms present in wound colonized: wound containing multiple microorganisms e.g., chronic wound descriptive qualities: laceration, (tearing of tissues w/irregular wound edges), abrasion, (scrape), contusion, (bruise) |
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primary intention
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e.g., surgical wound-has little tissue loss and skin edges are approximated or closed. Risk of infection is low. Heals by epithelialization, usually quick w.minimal scar formation
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secondary intention
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e.g., burn, pressue ulcer or severe laceration, wound left open and heals by granulation tissue formation by scar tissue. If scarring severe, may be permanent loss of tissue function
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tertiary intention
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for wounds that are contaminated and require observations, left open until risk of infection resolved then wound edges are approximated
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partial thickness
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wounds are shallow involving loss of epidermis, (top layer), & possible partial loss of dermis. Heal by regeneration b/c epidermis can regenerate, e.g., clean surgical wound. Heals by:inflammatory response, then epithelial proliferation and migration providing new cells to replace the lost ones & reestablishment of epidermal layers
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full thickness
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wounds that extend into the dermis, (involving both layers). These heal by scar formation b/c deeper tissues do not regenerate. Heals by inflammatory response, proliferative phase & remodeling-the final stage of healing which may take up to a yr. The collagen scar continues to reorganize & gain strength for several months
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complications of wound healing
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-hemorrahage: shock
-infection -dehiscence: total or partial separation of wound layers e.g, surgical incision separates -Evisceration: total separation of wound layers where you can see organs &/or other internal structures or where organ may prorude thru wound opening |
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factors influencing wound healing
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-nutrition: poor nutrition predisposes pt to poor healing, decrease in subcutaneous fat which is an increase for pressure ulcers
-smoking: reduces amt. of functional hemoglobin in blood thus decreasing tissue oxygenation -tissue perfusion: decreased O2 to wound=decrease healing -infection -age -body fluids: drainage of bodily fluids can cause skin breakdown |
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risk assessment
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-skin: color, temperature, turgur, integrity
-nutritional status -exposure of skin to body fluids -pain -assessment risk for pressure ulcers: Norton scale Braden scale |
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assessment of traumatic wounds, emergency setting
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-abrasions;superficial scrape w/little bleeding
-lacerations: cut -punctures appearance: -amt of bleeding -size: lacerations greater than 5cm (2 in) long or 1 inch deep can cause serious bleeding |
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assessment of wounds in stable setting
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-appearance: size, healing
-character of drainage: serous: clear watery plasma sanguineous: bright red, indicates active bleeding serosanguineous: pale, red, watery-mixture of clear & red fluid purulent: thick, yellow, green, tan or brown -drains:dr. inserts drain into or near surgical wound if drainage is expected |
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nursing diagnosis for wounds
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-risk for infection
-imbalanced nutrition:less than body requirments -pain -impaired skin integrity |
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prevention of pressure ulcers
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-skin care
-positioning: *establish & post individual turning schedule *elevate the head of bed as little as possible-elevating to 30 degrees or less will decrease chance of pressure ulcer development from shearing forces -use of support services **management of ulcers & wounds in acute setting-assess location, stage, size, tissue type & amt, exudate & surrounding skin condition every 8 hrs |
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wound management
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prevent & manage infection
-cleanse wound: irrigate w/sterile saline to remove debris & exudate (puss) -remove nonviable tissue: debridement is removal of nonviable, necrotic tissue, it rids ulcer of a source of infection, to enable visualization of wound & to provide a clean base necessary for healing e.g., wet to dry saline gauze dressing -manage exudate:assess volume, consistancey & odor of drainage to determine if infected -dehiscence: one way to prevent is to place pillow over incision site when pt is coughing or deep breathing -dressing |
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dressings
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Protects, aids in healing, promotes thermal insulation, provides moist environment if packing wound.
-gauze:absorbant & nonirritating -wet to dry:used when wound requires debridement -telfa:over clean wounds w/little drainage. Has shiny, nonadherant surface that doesn't stick to wounds but allows drainage to pass to gauze topper -transparent: traps moisture over wound -wound VAC: device that assists in wound closure by applying localized negative pressure to draw the edges of wound together |
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dressing changes
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-administer required analgesic
-explain steps to pt -gather all supplies -prepare sterile field as indicated -remove old dressing, assess area, provide necessary care using appropriate aseptic technique -answer pt questions & document care provided |
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senses
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sight-visual
hearing-auditory touch-tactile smell-olfactory taste-gustatory |
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reception
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begins w/stimulation of a nerve called a receptor. When nerve impulse is created, it travels along pathways to the spinal cord or dirctly to brain.
-perception: integration & interpretation of stimuli bases on person's experiences -reaction: a person will usually react to stimuli that are most meaningful or significant at the time |
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sensory deficits
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a deficit in the normal function of sensory reception & perception
-it becomes difficult for person to interact safely w/the environment until new skills relying on other existing functions are learned |
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sensory deprivation
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when a person experiences an inadaquate quality or quantity of stimulation, such as monotonous or meaningless stimuli. May result in reduced capacity to learn, inability to problem solve, disorientation, panic, boredom, reduced color perception, changes in visual/motor coodination, poor task performance, increased anxiety
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sensory overload
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when a person receives multiple sensory stimuli & can't perceptually disregard or selectively ignore some stimuli
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tactile changes
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older adults have a decline in sensitivity to pain, pressure, and temperature
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how can meds contribute to sensory alterations?
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prolonged use of certain meds can permanently damage the auditory nerve, e.g., streptomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin
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common visual sensory deficits
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-presbyopia: unable to see near objects clearly-farsighted
-cataract: opaque areas in part or the entire lens-interferes w/the passage of light into the eye -dry eyes: tear glands produce too few tears -open-angle glaucoma: an increase in intraocular pressure -diabetic retinopathy: changes occur in the blood vessels of the retina |
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common auditory sensory deficits
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-presbycusis: a common progressive hearing disorder in older adults. Hearing loss is gradual from changes in inner ear & changes along nerve pathways leading to brain.
-cerumen accumulation: buildup of ear wax |
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common olfactory sensory deficits
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-olfactory, smell: decrease in number of nerve fibers by age 50.
educate pt.'s who have a deficit olfactory sense to have smoke detectors on every level of their home |
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common balance sensory deficits
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-dizziness and disequilibrium
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common taste sensory deficits
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-xerostomia: decrease in salivary production
-a decrease in taste buds in older adults. To enhance gustatory sense assist w/oral hygiene |
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common neurological sensory deficits
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-peripheral neuropathy: numbness & tingling of the affected area. Tactile sensation is decreased in hands & feet.
-Stroke (CVA): causes sensory deficits due to brain damage |
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factors affecting sensory function
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-age: as we age are sensory function weakens, e.g., reduced visual fields, decrease in hearing acuity, decrease in # of taste buds & reduction of olfactory nerve fibers
-meaningful stimuli: reduces the incidence of sensory deprivation e.g.,nursing homes should encourage visitors & roomates -amt of stimuli: excessive stimuli in environment can cause sensory overload |
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assessing for sensory alterations
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-sensory alterations history: nature & characteristics of alterations or any problem related to. Look at ethnic background, e.g., glaucoma 3x more prevalent in african americans.
-mental status:physical appearance & behavior, cognitive ability, emotional stability: sensory overload can cause confusion. -physical assessment: assess function of 5 senses -ability to perform self care: altered vision may alter ability to perform ADL's -health promotion habits: daily hygiene routines -presense of hazards -communication devices:deaf may read lips -social support -use of assistive devices: hearing aid -other factors: medications |
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nursing diagnoses for altered senses
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impaired communication
risk for injury situational low self esteem disturbed sensory perception social isolation |
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BMR basal metabolic rate
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the energy requirements of a person at rest, e.g., breathing, circulation, HR, temp
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REE resting energy expenditure
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measurement that accounts for BMR plus energy to digest meals and perform mild activity. Accounts for 60-70% of our daily needs
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normal sleep requirements
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-infant: average 8-10 hrs per night plus several daytime naps
-Toddlers: average 12 hrs a day -preschoolers: average 12 per night -School age: 10-12 hrs per night -adolescents: average 7.5 hrs a night -adults: average 6-8.5 hrs per night -older adults: more than 85% of age 65 & older report problems w/sleep due to illness, pain, frequent night time awakenings |
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Insomnia
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chronic difficulty falling alseep, frequent awakenings or nonrestorative sleep. Many causes e.g., stress-management involves treating underlying emotional or medical issue
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Sleep apnea
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characterized by the lack of airflow thru the nose & mouth for periods of 10 seconds or longer during sleep. Snoring & HA are 2 main signs.
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narcolepsy
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a dysfunction of mechanisms that regulate the sleep and wake sates. Excessive daytime sleepiness occurs & person may suddenly fall asleep.
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sleep deprivation
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cause may be illness, stress, meds & environmental disturbances. Some s/s: blurred vision, decreased reflexes, cardiac arrhythmias, decreased reasoning & judgement, confusion, agitation, irritable, withdrawn
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Lack of sleep can cause what physical illnesses?
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-pain
-respiratory disease (decreased immunity) -heart disease (decreased tissue restoration) -GI distress (stress from lack of sleep) *all of these can result in further sleep problems *lack of sleep impairs healing |
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Factors that affect sleep
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-drugs & substances: alter sleep & daytime alertness
-lifestyle: alterations in routine -usual sleep patterns: disrupted b/c of lengthened work schedule -emotional stress: can distrupt sleep -environment: comfort, noise -exercise & fatigue: exercise can promote restful sleep -food & caloric intake: eating a large meal at night can interfere w/sleep |
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Developmental risks theory for adolescents
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Erikson's theory: Identity vs role confustion, sexual maturity, "who am I?"
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Assessing possible threats to a client's immediate enviornment
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-history: any underlining conditions that pose threat t safety e.g., gait, strength
-pt.'s home enviornment: e.g., adequate lighting -health care enviroment: does pt. need help ambulating -risk for falls: confusion, meds affecting BP hx of falls -risk for med errors: always check pt.'s armband before a procedure & do 6 rights -pt expectation:if pt uninformed or inexperienced, threats to their safety can occur |
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implementation for pt safety in acute care setting
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-fall prevention: enact measures to prevent falls, proper lighting, handrails up, put pt in room by station
-restraints: used as a last resort, less restrictive measures tried 1st, know policy of institution, must be periodically removed to assess pt. need of restraints -side rails:if used bed needs to be at lowest position, -fire safety: RACE: Rescue pt.'s in emmediate danger, Activate fire alarm, Close doors, Extinguish fire |
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seizure precautions
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-side rails up
-bed in lowest position -pt in side lying position if possible -padded siderails & headboard -pillow under head -suction machine kept in room w/clean gloves, oral airway, pillows |
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Accreditation guidlines
JCAHO |
-specify guidelines for documentation
*everything that is done for a pt must be documented for the health care institution to recover it's costs |
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Legislation
HIPPA |
-HIPPA took effect in April 03
-legislation governs all areas of info management, including reimbursement, coding, security and pt records |
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HIPPA
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-pt.'s have significant rights
*pt education on privacy protection *ensuring pt access to their records *receiving pt consent before info is released *provides recourse if privacy protection is violated. Pt.'s can file formal complaint |
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purposes of documentation
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-communication, use military time
-legal defense -billing -education -research -auditing/monitoring |
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guidelines for documenting
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-factual:objective info about what RN sees, hears, feels or smells
-accurate: use exact measurements -complete: describe nursing care & pt response -current: document care as soon as possible after given -organized |
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Methods of recording
*varies w/institution |
-narrative: story like format
-problem orientated med records: data organized by diagnosis e.g., SOAP charting -source records: clients chart organized so each discipline has a separate section. *details can be missed -charting by exception: RN writes not only when pt status not WNL or changes |
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SOAP charting
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S: subjective data (verbalized by pt)
O: objective data (measured & observed) A: assessment (diagnosis based on assessment) P: plan (what caregiver plans to do) |
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Forms for documentation
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-admission nursing hx: completed when pt admitted to unit
-flow sheets & graphic record: allows for quick & easy entering of assessment data -pt care summary or Kardex: form that provides RN w/current detailed list of orders, treatment, & diagnostic testing -acuity record: provides method of determining the hrs of care & staff required for a given group of pt.s -standardized care plan:modifications can be made to individualize care -discharge summary: |
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Documentation in nonacute facility
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-in home health clients are referred to as residents
-in long term care residents often stable so daily documentation is done using flow sheets and assessments may be done only weekly or monthly |
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computerized documenting
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advantages: ability to retrieve info easily
disadvantages: maintaining confidentiality is big issue, use requires password to access. *a good system requires periodic changing of password |
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factors affecting bowel elimination
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-age: ability to control doesn't take place till 2 or 3. Older adults lose muscle tone in perineal floor & anal sphincter putting them at risk for incontinence. Nerve impulses slow down making them less aware of need to defecate
-diet: fiber improves normality -fluid intake: fluid liquefies contents making passage easier thru colon -physical activity: promotes peristalsis -psychological factors: stress can increase peristalsis, depression can slow peristalsis -personal habits: allow privacy as embarrassment could prompt pt to ignore urge to defecate |
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GI tract
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purpose is to absorb fluid & nutrietns & to prepare food for absorption & use by the body's cells & provide temporary storage of feces
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Theories of aging
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Biological
-stochastic theories-random cellular damage that occurs over time -nonstochastic theories-genetically programmed physiological mechanisms w/n body control the process of aging. psychosocial-aging individuals withdraw from customary roles & engage in more introspective, self focused activities |
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Delirium
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potentially reversible cognitive impairment that is often due to a physiological cause e.g., electrolyte imbalance, cerebral anoxia, hypoglycemia, meds, drug effects tumors. S/S include fluctuations in cognition, mood, attn, arousal & self awareness, hallucinations, disturbed sleep-wake cycle &disorientaion. S/S are worse at night, in darkness & on awakening
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Dementia
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cognitive function deterioration leads to a decline in the ability to perform basic & instrumental activities of daily living. It is gradual, progressive, irreversible cerebral dysfunction. E.g, Alzheimers
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Depression
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20% of oder adults, is reversible but can cause confusion and may present as delirium
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Health concerns for older adult
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-heart disease leading cause of death
-cancer-2nd leading cause of death -stroke 3rd leading cause of death -alcohol abuse: 15% are heavy drinkers, contributes to falls, dementia and malnutrition |
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functions of sleep
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contribute to physiological & psychological restoration:
NREM sleep contributes to body tissue restoration REM sleep is needed for brain tissue restoration & is important for cognitive restoration *loss of REM sleep can lead to feelings of confustion, irritability & suspicion. Mood, motor performance, memory and equilibrium can be altered |
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rhythms of sleep
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the 24 hr circadian rhythms include daily sleep-wake cycles which are affected by light, temp, external factors, social activities and work routines
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stages of sleep
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normal sleep involves 2 phases: nonrapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM). NREM consists of 4 stages
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sleep cycle
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the cyclical pattern usually progresses from stage 1 thru stage 4 of NREM, followed by a reversal from stage 4 to 3 to 2 and ending with a period of REM sleep. With each successive cycle stages 3 & 4 shorten & the period of REM lengthens.
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Nitrogen balance
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-when the I & O of N are equal
-N is a compound unique to protein that can provide a direct measure of protein status. -positive N balance: when I of N exceeds the O. Required for growth, pregnancy maintenance of lean muscle & healing -negative N balance: occurs when the body loses more N than the body needs. e.g. sepsis, burns, infection |
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Food pyramid
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-grains: 6 oz, half should be whole grain
-veggies: 2 1/2 cups -fruit: 2 cups -milk: 3 cups, for kids 2-8, 2 cups -meat & beans: 5 1/2 oz |
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fats
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produce 9 kcal/g
deficiency occurs when fat intake is below 10% of daily nutrition |
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water
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-comprises 60-70% of body weight
-cell function depends on fluid environment -infants have greatest % of total body water, & older ppl have the least (they are vulnerable to dehydration) -can't survive for more than a few days w/o water |
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vitamins
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-present in small amt in foods & are essential for normal metabolism
-body can't synthesize vitamins in the required amt & depends on dietary intake. Classified as fat soluable or water soluable -fat soluble: A,D,E,K-can be stored in body except D -water soluble: C & B complex, can't be stored & must be provided in daily food intake |
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common bowel problems
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-constipation:infrequent BMs, difficult evacuation of feces, inability to defecate at will & hard feces
-impaction: results from unrelieved constipation.collection of hardened feces, wedged in rectum that cant be expelled -diarrhea: increase in the # of stools & the passage of liquid unformed feces. Puts pt at risk for electrolyte & fluid loss -incontinence: the inability to control passage of feces & gas from anus -flatulence: gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, bowel wall stretches & distends, can cause pain, cramping & abd fullness -hemorrhoids: dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. Caused from increased venous pressure from straining at defecation, pregnancy, heart failure & chronic liver disease |
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normal values for urinalysis
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-Ph: 4.6-8.0. <4.6 =acidity; >8.0=alkalinity. secretion of acid/alkaline urine can indicate kidney disease, kidneys most important mechanisms for maintaining Ph, renal Ph screens for renal disease
-protein: none up to 8mg/100ml, renal disease allows protein to enter urine -glucose: none, diabetic pt.s have glucose in urine as result of inability to reabsorb glucose, ingestion of high glucose may show in healthy adults -ketones: none, poorly controlled diabetes, starvation, dehydration will break down fatty acids -blood: up to 2 RBC's, trauma, disease, surgery of lower urinary track -specific gravity: 1.010-1.025, high=concentrated, low=diluted -WBC: 0-4, greater can indicate UTI |
