Nother Geography Test

Front 1

weathering

Back 1

breaking up of earths materials progressively into smaller and smaller pieces

Front 2

erosion

Back 2

transportation of weathered material

Front 3

deposition

Back 3

depositing of transfered materials

Front 4

How does the hydrologic cycle work?

Back 4

1. moisture evaporates from earths surface

2.water vapor lifted into atmosphere is cooled

3. when cooled to a certain temperature (dew point) condensation occurs

4. condensation converts water vapor into liquid water

5. liquid water droplets grow together around a condensation nuclei (usually dust)

6. When droplets grow large enough they fall back to earth

7. droplets fall as rain, snow or sleet depending on temperature

8. precipitation falls onto land or ocean

9. on land a portion soaks into the ground, used by plants and into some rivers

10. rivers transport to oceans eventually

11. Once water is back to surface, cycle repeats

Front 5

Terms within hydrologic cycle

Back 5

Precipitation, Runoff, Evaporation, Transpiration, Condensation, Advection

Front 6

Water balance equation is

Back 6

a book keeping method for the balance of water in the hydrologic cycle

Front 7

field capacity

Back 7

after water drains from large pores... condition when soil is completely full of water and new additions cause surplus

Front 8

wilting point

Back 8

when only unextractable water remains in soil, plants will wilt

Front 9

porosity

Back 9

available open (pore) space in soil

Front 10

permeability

Back 10

measure of ease with which water will flow through a soil

Front 11

aquifer

Back 11

rock layer permeable to ground water flow in significant amounts

Front 12

aquiclude

Back 12

body of rock that does not conduct water in usable amounts

Front 13

confined aquifer

Back 13

permeable rock layer bounded above and below by aquicludes (water in aquifer under natural pressure and will rise towards surface naturally as well)

Front 14

artesian flow

Back 14

when water in a well rises naturally above the water table because of pressure in the aquifer

Front 15

flowing well

Back 15

when water rises in a well all the way to the earth's surface because of natural pressure in the aquifer

Front 16

unconfined aquifer

Back 16

permeable rock layer not covered by an impermeable rock layer

Front 17

water table

Back 17

upper limit of the zone of saturation

Front 18

aquifer recharge area

Back 18

area where water enters an aquifer to resupply the groundwater reserve

Front 19

aquifer discharge area

Back 19

area where water leaves an aquifer. usually at a spring or surface seep which often occurs in the bed of rivers

Front 20

specific yield

Back 20

amount of groundwater at surface available for use

Front 21

seasonal water budget

Back 21

variations in water table elevation with seasons of the year, and hence the amount of water present in an aquifer

Front 22

drawdown

Back 22

when the amount of water pumped from a well exceeds the recharge rate the water table elevation will drop deeper beneath the earth's surface

Front 23

cone of depression

Back 23

a low spot that forms in the water table as drawdown of the water table occurs

Front 24

effects of over pumping (removing water faster than recharge)

Back 24

1. shortage of water because more water is removed than is added to the aquifer

2. Land surface subsidence and collapse because of lack of buoyant support

3. salt water intrusion in coastal areas because well near the ocean will begin to draw ocean water under the land

Front 25

causes of polluted groundwater sources

Back 25

industrial injection wells, septic tank overflow, seepage from hazardous waste sites, industrial waste sites, agricultural pesticide herbicide and fertilizer and landfill leachate

Front 26

government attempts to keep US groundwater clean

Back 26

US safe drinking and water act, US resource conservation and recovery act (amended in 1984)

Front 27

The interior of the earth is studied by

Back 27

indirect evidence such as seismic waves

Front 28

geologic time scale

Back 28

eons, eras, periods and epochs

Front 29

Pleistocene epoch

Back 29

last great ice age on earth which caused all norther states to be covered in ice. induced lower sea levels

Front 30

uniformitarianism

Back 30

same geologic processes occurring today have gone on throughout geologic time; must fundamental principle in earth science

Front 31

isostasy

Back 31

maintenance of hydrostatic equilibrium (pressure exerted at surface) in earth's crust. it refers to a vertical crust movement because of buoyancy over the asthenosphere

Front 32

additions of weight to the earth

Back 32

depress the earth's crust

Front 33

subtractions of weight to the earth

Back 33

rises the earth's crust

Front 34

4 main shells and transition zones of the earth

Back 34

1. Crust - outermost shell; dense but thinner beneath oceans (average 5 km thick), lighter but thicker beneath continents (average 30 km thick). Mohorovicic Discontinuity (moho) is area of change in mineral composition at crustal base.
2. mantle - Thickest of the 4 shells, makes up 75% of volume of Earth, contains 4 distinct zones
a. upper most mantle - rigid and brittle zone
b. asthenosphere- plastic, hot zone
c. upper mantle - rigid zone again
d. lower mantle - more dense and not as brittle
Gutenberg Discontinuity-transition zone of mineral change between mantle and core
3. outer core - made of molten iron, 90% of Earth’s magnetic field and the magnetospshere is generated here
4. inner core - solid iron, well above melting point for iron but solid because of intense pressure

Front 35

the crust is composed of

Back 35

minerals-solid substances with specific chemical composition and crystal shape

Front 36

there are __ know minerals on earth

Back 36

3000

Front 37

rocks are composed of

Back 37

different combinations of minerals

Front 38

rocks exposed at the surface are said to__, when buried called __

Back 38

outcrop, bedrock

Front 39

three kinds of rocks and their divisible categories

Back 39

1. Igneous -all igneous rocks are crystalline, form by way of cooling and solidifying magma
-once magma is on Earth’s surface it is called lava - slow cooling=large crystals, fast=small crystals
a. extrusive igneous -lava cools and solidifies on surface,fine grained because of rapid cooling
b. intrusive ie. -cools and solidifies beneath surface, larger crystals because of slower cooling
2. Sedimentary rocks-Weathered material deposited, builds up to great thicknesses, massive weight compacts sediment and cement (silica or calcium carbonate) introduced
-sediment usually builds up in horizontal layers called strata (beds) which can be bent or tilted
Three main kinds of sedimentary rocks are:
1.clastic-fragments of pre-existing rocks cemented together (example sandstone)
2.chemical-deposition or chemical precipitation of soluble minerals (example limestone)
3.organic-massive accumulations of dead plants and animals (ex. coal)
3. Metamorphic rocks- originally another rock that gets changed by heat and pressure to form new rock
-the “cooking” process under heat and pressure melts and rearranges the mineral structure
-some metamorphic rocks develop banding called foliation (bands of similar minerals)

Front 40

continental drift theory

Back 40

posed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 stated that:
1. super continent called Pangea (all continents joined together) existed 255 million years ago
2. north part of continent called Laurasia broke away, south part called Gondwanaland broke away
3. Further broke up and formed continents as we know them which are still moving.
-Wegener’s evidence=1. how the continents fit together, 2. similar rocks and fossils on different continents
-Not until 1960’s that Wegener’s theory accepted and name changed to Theory of Plate Tectonics

Front 41

scientists discovered that convection currents are

Back 41

responsible for the movement of the crust's plates

Front 42

currents bring molten material to the surface and

Back 42

returns the old crust to the earths interior

Front 43

three types of crustal plate boundaries

Back 43

1. divergent- areas of sea floor spreading where new basaltic crust is being added on.
2. convergent- where crustal plates collide/converge. Oceanic crust slides beneath lighter continental crust.
-area where this occurs is called a zone of subduction. Oceanic trenches form in this location, a lot of volcanoes form and earthquakes occur.
3. transverse/transform- where crustal plates slide laterally past each other. Example: San Andreas Fault.
*** Special kind of convergent boundary where continental crust collides with continental crust. Called continental collision zone, suturing of continental crust occurs. Produces large mountain ranges on Earth’s surface. Himalaya Mountains formed in this way. Oceanic plates convergence results in one subducting under the other, usually the older (denser) oceanic plate.
*** Hot spot- place in center of plate where molten material comes to the surface. Will form a chain of islands as the crust moves over the hot spot. Hawaiian Islands an example.

Front 44

hyposemtry of the earth

Back 44

statistics related to geographic features of earth

Front 45

earths topographic regions

Back 45

a way of dividing (classifying) earth surface features by topography

Front 46

continental shields

Back 46

the ancient rocks (crystalline) that form the core of the continents

Front 47

diastrophism

Back 47

Diastrophism- general term referring to deformation of the earth’s crust. Involves bending and/or breaking of rocks by lateral pressure and pressure from below. Apply pressure in just right way can fold rocks without breaking.
Stress- Force applied to rocks (tension, compression, shear)
Strain - How the rocks respond to stress (stretch, shorten, twist)
Three types of diastrophic movement:
1. Broad warping- slight folding of the Earth’s crust over a large area.
-Example: the continent of North America.
East coast a large downwarp; is a coastline of submergence
West coast is a large upwarp; coastline of emergence
2. Folding- lateral pressure (compression) bends the rocks into various folds.
Five types of folds:
1. monocline- one sided fold that connects flat lying strata
2. anticline- symmetrical upfold
3. syncline- symmetrical downfold
4. overturned fold- fold that is pushed over upon itself.
5. overthrust fold- fold breaks a long a fault and thrusts one set of rocks over another.
3. Faulting- breaking apart of rocks in the Earth’s crust along lines of weakness, with

Front 48

types of diastrophic folding

Back 48

1. monocline- one sided fold that connects flat lying strata
2. anticline- symmetrical upfold
3. syncline- symmetrical downfold
4. overturned fold- fold that is pushed over upon itself.
5. overthrust fold- fold breaks a long a fault and thrusts one set of rocks over another.

Front 49

types of faults

Back 49

Three types of faults:
1. normal-block of crust upthrown as related to downthrown on other side of fault. (tensional)
2. reverse- upthrown block of crust overhangs downthrown block. (compressional)
3. transform (strike-slip)- crust moves laterally past each other on opposite sides of the fault.
*San Andreas and related fault systems are transform (strike-slip faults)

Front 50

faulting forms what kind of landforms

Back 50

1. Fault Block mountains- one side of a block of crust is lifted upward along a fault forming a mountain.
2. Horst- uplifted block of land between two faults.
3. grabben- downthrown block of crust between two faults.
4. rift valley- long, linear grabben structure that is being pulled apart by tectonic forces.

Front 51

orogenesis is what and what kinds of orogenesis are there?

Back 51

Orogenesis - Mountain Building---Related to plate convergence
1. Oceanic-Continental - Nazca plate and South American Plate (formation of Andes)
2. Oceanic-Ocenaic - Trench systems in the Pacific Basin
3. Continental-Continental - Formation of the Himalaya Mountains
*Tilted Fault Block Mountains (Tetons and Sierras) and Continental Collision (Appalachians)

Front 52

what are the epicenter and focus of an earthquake, aswell as earthquake impact

Back 52

Earthquakes:
-Epicenter - Location on land surface above focus
-Focus - Location where earthquake originates
Earthquake impacts - are both physical impacts and business, political and monetary

Front 53

what are the two kinds of volcanic mountain peaks and what kinds of landforms can they create

Back 53

Two types of volcanic mountain peaks:
1. shield- low angle because low viscosity magma flow far away from point in comes on to the
Earth’s surface.
2. strato-volcano (composite) - mix low and high viscosity magma, intermediate in slope angle.
Extrusive volcanic activity can form the following two landforms:
1. caldera- basin shaped depression that forms as the result of an explosion and/or collapse.
2. Volcanic neck- sharp spire of old volcanic rock that marks location of old volcanic mountain and where magma can to the surface.

Front 54

name and explain some intrusive landforms

Back 54

-Intrusive volcanic activity can also produce landforms. They form beneath the surface and are then exposed by erosion and uplift.

The following landforms are intrusive:
1. batholith- enormous igneous rock body that marks location of former magma chamber.
-can be so big that when exposed can form whole mountain ranges.
2. laccolith- slow flowing magma get into layers between existing rocks and causes those
rocks to warp upward forming a feature called a dome on the surface. can eventually be exposed by erosion and uplift.
3. dike- vertical sheets of magma thrust into existing rocks.
4. sill- long thin intrusive body of igneous rocks, orientation determined by existing rocks

Front 55

What are the five kinds of openings in rock formations?

Back 55

1. microscopic- tiny spaces in between grains or crystals in rocks. Not very important.
2. joints- cracks that develop in rock due to stress, now show no evidence of movement.
3. Faults- stress cracks in rocks that show displacement (evidence of movement).
4. lava vesicles- holes that develop in cooling lava.
5. solution cavities- soluble minerals are dissolved and carried away by water (Limestone)

Front 56

what is differential weathering?

Back 56

when weathering differs from material to material

Front 57

What are the types of weathering?

Back 57

1. Physical or Mechanical- physical disintegration of rock without any change in chemical composition.
2. Chemical- the decomposition or decay of minerals in rock due to chemical alteration of those minerals, always in the presence of water

Front 58

what are the five types of physical weathering?

Back 58

Freeze-thaw (frost action)- When water freezes it expands and when it thaws it contracts. This pulls apart rocks by way of a process called frost wedging.
2. salt wedging (crystallization)- occurs when crystals of salt form in cracks in rocks. It works like this:
1) Water goes into crack in rock, 2) water evaporates, 3) salts in water deposited in crack,
4) repeated time after time and salt crystals grow in cracks, 5) salt crystals get so big they pry apart rock. Process works best in dry climate like a desert.
3. root prying - tree roots break apart earth materials as they grow.
4. pressure release (exfoliation/unloading) - erosion of overlying materials causes uplift and rocks crack as uplifted.
5. heating and cooling (temperature change)- temperature changes associated with night and day, or forest fires can break apart rocks. Some mineral expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Front 59

what are the three types of chemical weathering?

Back 59

oxidation- oxygen atoms bond with metallic atoms to form products easily weathered. Synonym for oxidation is rust.
2. hydrolysis- involves hydrogen atoms bonding with other atoms to produce a softer more easily eroded substance. Works best in igneous rocks.
3. carbonation- carbon dioxide reacts with carbonate rocks (limestone) to form a very soluble
product that is removed by water.
Hydration – also chemical weathering but is a simpler chemical reaction of mineral with water; it is simply the addition of water to the minerals. Cycles of hydration can cause physical weathering by granular disintegration and then further susceptibility to chemical weathering.

Front 60

what is karst?

Back 60

a type of topography formed mainly on limestone by the chemical weathering process of
dissolution, and that is characterized by sinkholes, caves and underground drainage.

Front 61

what is the most major landform created by karst

Back 61

sinkhole (doline)- formed by dissolution of carbonate rocks and surface collapse

Front 62

what are the three types of sinkholes?

Back 62

Dissolution sinkholes
Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the water first contacts the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow is focused in preexisting openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in the zone of water-table fluctuation where ground water is in contact with the atmosphere.
Cover-subsidence sinkholes
Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments are permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments contain more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon, are smaller, and may go undetected for long periods.
Cover-collapse sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole into a shallower bowl-shaped depression.

Front 63

tell me all the shit about mass wasting?

Back 63

-The following mass wasting processes will be discussed from fastest to slowest.
1. Fall - Direct falling of pieces of rock downslope, often from a vertical cliff. Usually do
not move a great distance from the slope. Often see danger falling rock signs in mountainous areas. Fallen rock material is referred to as talus.
2. Slide -Large masses of rock and Earth materials carried abruptly downslope. Commonly
referred to as land slides. can last a few seconds to a few minutes and sliding materials can reach speeds of 100 mph of more.

-Slides change shape of land in three ways 1) leave scars on hillsides where they occur (called landslide scars), 2) pile up landslide debris in valley bottoms, and 3) may form lake behind landslide debris in valley.
-Within the classification slide, there is a special kind of a slide called a slump. Slump is defined as a slope collapse where the slope materials rotate backwards during the event. Top part of slump rotates back away from you if you were looking at it head on.

3. Flow- slope material become unstable due to addition of water and move downslope under
the force of gravity. Amount of water present and type of materials on slope control what type of flow occurs. -There are 3 types of flow.
1. Earthflow - Slope materials completely saturated, become unstable and move downslope.
2. mudflow - Similar to earthflow, but a mudflow contains fine sized particles like silt and clay that move down a slope during heavy rain.
3. Debris Flow - When a mudflow picks up large pieces of debris it is called a debris flow.

4. Creep- slowest and least perceptible type of mass movement. Slow downslope movement
of soils and regolith. Can be detected on land surface by presence of tilted telephone poles, fence posts and trees.
-Special form of creep that occur in high mountain or far northern places is called solifluction which means soil flowage. Soil partially frozen and saturated with water moves slowly down slope in lobes.
Scarification - Human-induced mass wasting.