Notes In Peercy's Class

Front 1

8 Parts of Speech

Back 1

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions & Interjections

Front 2

8 Parts of Speech fit into 5 functions of a natural language. The 5 functions are:

Back 2

naming (nouns, pronouns), action (verbs), modification (adjectives, adverbs), joining (prepositions, conjunctions), exclaiming (interjections)

Front 3

Semantic

Back 3

Delivers meaning of a sentence. The Semantic groups are open classes, meaning that new members can be and are added all the time. Semantic information answers questions about the content of the sentence.
Nouns – Who, Whom, What.
Verbs – Action [do-verbs, modals, action verbs, intransitive verbs, be verbs etc.]
Adjectives – Modification
Adverbs – Modification

Front 4

Functional:

Back 4

Delivers grammatical information. These are closed classes, we haven’t added a new pronoun in 1500 years. Functional information is structural and informs us of who did what to whom.

Front 5

___________ belong in the functional category, because even if the reference changes, the function does not. eg. “she” can refer to any woman, multiple women, and hypothetical women, but the word always serves the same function in that it is a reference to A woman.

Back 5

Pronouns

Front 6

Sentence Pattern 1

Back 6

1 - "She is here." NP be AdvT/P – Adverb of Time and place.

Front 7

Sentence Pattern 2

Back 7

2 - She is adorable. NP be Adj – complete categorization

Front 8

Sentence Pattern 3

Back 8

3 - She is champion. NP be NP – complete categorization

Front 9

Sentence Pattern 4

Back 9

4 -- She looks fourmidable. [sic] NP vlink Adj – linking verb

Front 10

Sentence Pattern 5

Back 10

5 -She becomes the 5th queen. NP vlink Adj – linking verb
“Most young men become old men.”

Front 11

Sentence Pattern 6

Back 11

6. NP Vint – intransitive verb, doesn’t act upon an object. “Jess tried to sleep.” She snores. (six times) 6

Front 12

Sentence Pattern 7

Back 12

7. NP VT NP2 – Most common sentence pattern. “I hit the guy who cheated.” "I like you."

Front 13

Sentence Pattern 8

Back 13

8. NP VT NP2 NP3 – Only pattern that takes an indirect object. “John gave Bambi 8 novel experiences. Wink wink, nudge nudge.” "Mom gave Charlie eight treats."

Front 14

Sentence Pattern 9

Back 14

9. NP VT NP2 Adj – Adjective works on NP2. “We painted the car blue.” "She wore her-nine-inch-nails long."

Front 15

Sentence Pattern 10

Back 15

10. NP VT NP2 NP2 – Naming or whatever. “They call me Mr. Pig.” This Lion King reference brought to you by my inability to remember what they were parodying. or "We named him King of the Munchkins."

Front 16

These sentence patterns are the ________ [indivisible unit, smallest possible point] of traditional grammar.

Back 16

nexus

Front 17

________Don’t actually mean anything, but are there to prove some sort of action or existence.

Back 17

Be Verbs

Front 18

infinite stem. (of Be Verbs)

Back 18

Be, Being, Been

Front 19

Past Tense Be Verbs

Back 19

was, were

Front 20

Present tense Be Verbs

Back 20

Am, are, is

Front 21

Verbs of the senses and, I suppose, change.
See, Smell, Hear, Taste, Touch, became/become, remain etc.

Back 21

Linking Verbs

Front 22

__________ verbs Do not act upon an object. “I cried, despairing of ever getting around to studying for psych.” I can cry on something, but I can’t cry something, it just doesn’t work.
“I kicked,” however, requires a noun/object. “I kicked uselessly at nothing.” Is still “I kicked nothing.”

Back 22

Intransitive

Front 23

________verbs: are the opposite of intransitive verbs. They require an object upon which to act. “I kicked the ground when I was aiming for the football.” No, true story. Kicking the ground broke my ankle.

Back 23

Transitive Verbs

Front 24

4 traditional grammatical sentence types.

Back 24

Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound/Complex

Front 25

Simple

Back 25

A single independent clause/sentence pattern.
“George likes pretty girls.”

Front 26

Compound

Back 26

2 or more independent clauses/sentence patterns.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her.”

Front 27

Complex

Back 27

1 independent clause & 1 or more dependent clauses.
“George likes Sally and Bernadette, who is less attractive.”

Front 28

Compound/Complex

Back 28

2 or more independent clauses & At LEAST 1 dependent clause.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her and is going to propose marriage.”

Front 29

__________act as the subject or complement of something

Back 29

nouns

Front 30

A word may be a noun if ___________ (3 definitions)

Back 30

Possibility- 1. can accept a noun inflection [inflection morpheme]
Actuality- 2. contains a typical noun-forming derivational affix [TNFDA]
Environment- 3. can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a noun.

Front 31

Inflectional Morpheme Chart

Back 31

Morpheme Category Function

S Noun Number (plural)
S Noun Genitive (possessive)
S Verb 3rd, Singular, Present part
Ed Verb Past Participle
En Verb Irregular Past Participle
Ing Verb Present Participle
Er Adj/Adv Comparative
Est Adj/Adv Superlative

Front 32

The 4 characteristics of a noun are:

Back 32

number, gender, person, case

Front 33

Noun Characteristic, Number: Define Productive Pluralization:

Back 33

he productive pluralization is very basic – we just add S. Speakers of English instinctively know how to do it, the “regular” way of pluralizing. 3
If the last sound in a word is UNvoiced the plural is S
If the last sound in a word IS voiced, the plural is Z
If the last sound in a word is a sibilant [an S sound as in Buss] there’s the vowel sound+S
with an unvoiced S, the voiced sound is met with the voiced Z sound.

Front 34

Explain Assimilation and Dissimilation (in the Productive/Number-charachteristic of a noun)

Back 34

Dissimilation: Because there would be no distinction between sounds if you added an S or Z to a sibilant word, the vowel sound makes
Dissimilation: S---es
Assimilation: The unvoiced sound is met the plural distinct. Assimilation: S--s S---z

Front 35

Suppletive (Nouns/Number Characteristic) are

Back 35

irregular plurals. We have other was of suggesting number, but we don’t do it naturally, and there is no set process we apply, so we have to memorize which words are supplitive plurals.

Front 36

There are 5 categories of Supplitive nouns. These irregular/supplitive nouns COULD be normalized, but they’re not because our ear recognizes them. The 5 categories are:

Back 36

invariant, umlaut, consonantal, double, foreign

Front 37

________are words that don’t change even when they’re made plural. Words like Deer, Moose, Sheep etc [largely livestock. No idea why that is ]

Back 37

Invariant (nouns/number/suppletive)

Front 38

___________ is when the Vowel sound changes within the word. Man Men. Mouse Mice.

Back 38

Umlaut (noun/number/suppletive)

Front 39

adding a consonant to the end of the noun to create a plural. Ox - Oxen. [I can’t think of any other examples, I fail, but this was the example used in class. En is an Old-English plural]

Back 39

Consonantal (noun/number/suppletive)

Front 40

Technically this is a _______ consonantal. The example used in class was Children. Cild in the old English + plural “ru” + plural “en” gives you “Cildruen” [which slurred and seen through 1500 years] = children. Other examples are things like Brethren.

Back 40

Double (noun/number/suppletive)

Front 41

Latin or Greek sounding endings which, in Latin or Greek sound ridiculous, and in English make a word plural. Dr. Peercy says this is “snob appeal” because, again, in Greek or Latin the words make no sense, but suggests we use them anyway because language is Protective Camouflage. Example – Datum  Data. Cactus  Cacti. Etc.

Back 41

Foreign (noun/number/suppletive)

Front 42

English is a language which uses natural ______. When something is in the masculine or feminine ______ it is specifically referring to something that is male or female. Not an inert object like… a spoon. In other languages gender is applied to other objects.

Back 42

Noun Characteristic- Gender

Front 43

Define the noun characteristic/Gender/Person, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd

Back 43

1st person is addressing, 2nd person is being addressed, 3rd person is the object being discussed. I, You, They.
In English all non-pronoun objects are 3rd person unless presented with an appositive [which amplifies, clarifies, or extenuates]. For example, “Norman Peercy went to the store” is in the third person, unless it becomes “I, Norman Peercy, went to the store” where Norman Peercy is being used as an appositive.

Front 44

What are the 4 parts of the noun characteristic -case?

Back 44

Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Absolute

Front 45

---------Is the SUBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun nominative, it just is. (noun/case/_____)

Back 45

Nominative (noun/case/nominative)

The 'man' thanked the woman. subject
The 'woman' thanked the man. subject

Front 46

– Is the OBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun accusative, so position in the sentence becomes vital. (noun/case/_____)

Back 46

Accusative (noun/case/accusative)

The man thanked the 'woman'. object
The woman thanked the 'man'. object

Front 47

_____'s Formal marker is to add S. this is the possessive case, but we call it “_______” because _______ has more range than “possessive” it covers authorship, ownership, and origination as well as possession. Ex. “Joyce’s Ulysses” and “Jess’s copy of Ulysses” don’t mean the same thing, even if the object is the same. This is the same for pronouns as well – His. Hers, theirs, end in S.

Back 47

Genitive (noun/case/genitive) S Possesive

Front 48

______ is a construct which is implicationally related to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical link.
__________ can, positionally, be anywhere in a sentence, front, middle, or end.

Back 48

Absolute (noun/case/absolute)

Front 49

The 3 types of Absolutes and their explanations:

Back 49

Mere Exclamation, Direct Address (vocative), Nominative Absolute, Position

Front 50

Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/)Mere Exclamation

Back 50

1. Mere Exclamation – related most closely to exclamation, because it expresses the attitude or emotions of the speaker/writer.
“'Man', this is tedious.” – expresses attitude of frustration without affecting the clause [SP 2, btw]
“We need to, 'well', dump the body in the park.” – nerves.
“I want ice cream, 'gosh darn it'!”

Front 51

Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Direct address

Back 51

2. Direct address – also known as Vocative, a direct address, go figure, directly addresses an individual. It points a sentence to a specific location.
“Hey dude, Starbucks has pumpkin-spice lattes back in!”
“I need for you, Charlie, to explain exactly what happened.” [in this instance it’s both appositive and vocative]
“How’s about a beer, Boss?”

Front 52

Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Nominative Absolute

Back 52

Nominative Absolute – Called the most elegant structure in grammar. The nominative absolute is composed of a noun and a participle, it is NOT a clause. NOT NOT NOT a clause, because the NounParticiple combination carries no tense. I realize that none of that makes a damn bit of sense without examples, so here you go:

“Having discussed ice cream at length with Navin, I now want some.” – “I now want some” is the actual clause. It’s a pattern 7, a complete, independent clause. “Having discussed ice cream at length with Navin” is NOT a clause, it is the nominative absolute. “Having discussed” is the Participle, “Ice cream” would be the noun, everything else is window dressing.
The nominative absolute can function anywhere in a sentence. “I now, having discussed ice cream at length with Navin, want some.” and “I now want some, having discussed ice cream with Navin.”
Norm’s example was: “Having run out of booze, the party ended.” “Having run out” is the participle, “booze” is the noun. :D
“Tired from his exertions, the man shook with exhaustion.” Etc. etc.

Front 53

Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Position

Back 53

3. Position – Absolutes BY position, like everything else in this category, have no grammatical link to the sentence, but are implicationally related.
Things like titles – the headings on these notes etc. They’re implicationally linked in that they provide information for what is to follow, but they’re not part of what follows.
“The Pronoun Replacement Test for Participles and Participle Phrases” – this is a noun on page 185 of our textbook – it is a title of the following text, not it’s own sentence [obviously].

Front 54

10 noun subclasses are:
(memorize the flow chart)

Back 54

common, count, animate, concrete, human, proper, non-count, inanimate, abstract, not-human
These could be defined by a binary structure, +/-. They are hierarchical.

Front 55

TNFDA – Traditional Noun Forming Derivational Affixes are:

Back 55

Essentially, sticking an affix on the end of a verb or an adjective to turn it into a noun. This is #2 of the noun-definitions. A word may be a noun if it contains a TNFDA.
These affixes, while not comprehensive by any stretch, are a pretty good start.

Front 56

The TNFDA affixes are:

Back 56

Ment – Refine - Refinement. Amuse - Amusement etc.
Ard – Drunk - Drunkard.
Th – True - Truth.
Ude – Plenty - Plentitude. Exact - Exactitude.
Ness – Polite - Politeness. Serious - Seriousness.
Tion – Institute [used as a verb. Institute this policy please] - Institution.
Ar, Or, Er – Scholar, Actor, Teacher. All verbs - nouns.

Front 57

The 5 types of 'Determiners' that typically precede nouns (or determine them) are:

Back 57

Articles -definite 'the' and indefinite 'a, an'
Demonstratives- this, that, those, these
Genitives- 1.my, mine/ our ours 2. your, yours/your yours 3. his her hers its/ their theirs
Quantifiers- 'some' women, '25' soldiers
Most adjectives

Front 58

Question Categories/ Reference Nouns are:

Back 58

What-non-human
Who/Whom- human

Front 59

Question Category Reference Adverbs are:

Back 59

where, when, why, how, to what extent, under what circumstances

Front 60

Question Categories/ Reference Adjectives

Back 60

Which, What kind, How many, Whose

Front 61

The three question categories are:

Back 61

Reference nouns, reference adverbs, reference adjectives

Front 62

Replaces a noun phrase (subject or object) or replaces an individual noun. _______ make language FLOW. They make it cohesive.

Back 62

Pronouns

Front 63

8 Types of Pronouns

Back 63

Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, Reflexive, Intensive, Indefinite, Reciprocal

(I) Personally and Intensively Interrogated (my) Relatives. (They reacted) Reflexively (to my) Demonstration (and did not) Reciprocate (my opinion, therefore my pronoun findings were) Indefinite.

Front 64

Pronominalization Rule

Back 64

The first occurrence of a nominal is a full reference, the second and subsequent occurrences may/will be pronominalized until another reference occurs.

Front 65

Personal Pronoun Nominative singular and plural words are:

Back 65

1st I we, 2nd you you, 3rd He She It, They
(remember nominative means subject words)

Front 66

Personal Pronoun Accusative words are:

Back 66

1st Me us, 2nd you you, 3rd him her it, Them
(Remember that accusative words are object words)

Front 67

Personal Pronoun Genitive

Back 67

1st my mine, our ours 2nd your yours, 3rd his her hers Its, Its Theirs
(Remember that genitive means possesive)

Front 68

Demonstrative Pronouns:

Back 68

this that those these

Front 69

Demonstrative pronouns provide 3 pieces of information:

Back 69

1. The number, Singular or Plural
2. Definiteness/Specificity
3. Propinquity (relative nearness to the subject)
That poodle (singular, definite, comparatively far) is curled up in the armchair, whereas this poodle (singular, definite, comparatively near) is sitting next to me.

Demonstrative pronouns provide extra information. If you don’t NEED the extra information, you may as well use an article. Eg. “The poodle is curled up in the armchair.”

Front 70

If the Demonstrative pronoun is followed by a Noun, it references_________

Back 70

that noun. This Poodle is both large, and hairy.

Front 71

If the demonstrative pronoun is followed by a Verb, it is referencing__________

Back 71

a subject that is in a previous context. “This is fun.” The meaning of “this” is in a previous context.
“We went for a long run in the park today. That was awesome.”

Front 72

That. The word “That” has 5 possible functions, it can be

Back 72

1. Complementizer
2. Relative Pronoun
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
4. Subordinate conjunction 1
5. Subordinate conjunction 2

Front 73

3 Major Recursive Devices:

Back 73

Conjunction [both coordinate and subordinate]
Complementation
Relativization [relative clauses]

Front 74

Imbedding means:

Back 74

making a sentence bigger. A clause within a clause [which occurs w/recursiveness, hence the notation].

Front 75

If a clause occurs INSIDE another sentence, it HAS to be_____

Back 75

integrated/Subordinate. A subordinate clause begins with a subordinate conjunction [because, therefore, etc.] rendering it an adjective clause. If it DOES NOT contain a subordinate conjunction, the clause is an adverb.

Front 76

Relative Pronouns 3 point definition:

Back 76

1. Relative pronouns are juxtaposed to the head (co-referential to the head)
[“The Woman who was dog sitting” “the person who is dog sitting” and “the woman” are the same reference. Therefore, “Who was dog sitting, is co-referential to “the woman” which occurs at the head]
2. A relative pronoun introduces the clause in which it’s contained.
3. A relative pronoun has syntactic function within that clause.

Front 77

Relative Pronoun ________creating a potentially infinite loop [like counting]. The cat that ate the rat that ate the cheese that had been made by farmer Brown who was married to Mrs. Brown who used to be Ms. Jenkins whose father was a senator who saved a kitten that was stuck up a tree which had been growing in a park for three hundred years just ran away. Etc.

Back 77

Recursion

Front 78

There are 6 relative pronouns that we usually classify.

Back 78

1. Who (+Human, + Accusative, +/- Restrictive)
2. Whom (+Human, +Accusative, +/- Restrictive)
3. Which (-Human, Case not considered, +/- Restrictive)
4. That (-Human, Case not considered, + Restrictive – the only one!)
5. Whose (+Human, +Genitive, +/- Restrictive)
6. Of Which (-Human, +Genitive, +/- Restrictive)

Front 79

classify who

Back 79

+Human, + Nominative, +/- Restrictive

Front 80

classify Whom

Back 80

+Human, +Accusative, +/- Restrictive

Front 81

classify Which

Back 81

-Human, Case not considered, +/- Restrictive

Front 82

classify That

Back 82

-Human, Case not considered, + Restrictive – the only one!

Front 83

classify Whose

Back 83

+Human, +Genitive, +/- Restrictive

Front 84

classify Of Which

Back 84

-Human, +Genitive, +/- Restrictive

Front 85

_______acts as a subject or a complement [Object/complement]

Back 85

a nounphrase

Front 86

Complement:

Back 86

a) a word or group of words that completes a grammatical construction in the predicate and that describes or is identified with the subject or object, as “small” in “The house is small” or “president” in “They elected her president.”
b) any word or group of words used to complete a grammatical construction, esp. in the predicate, including adverbials, as “on the table” in “He put it on the table,” infinitives, as “To go” in “They are ready to go” and sometimes objects, as “ball” in “He caught the ball.”
Therefore – a pronoun works the same way 
Where ever there is a Noun Phrase, there can be a relative clause. It’s just true. NP(S)

Front 87

there are 2 reasons we use Relative Pronouns:

Back 87

1. To Identify a noun that is placed beside it (to render it an immediately understood reference, much like a proper/unique noun)
2. To add additional/new information.


1. “The cat that ate the rat died.” Identifies a specific cat, if there is more than one cat which ate a rat, the relative pronoun necessarily has to become more complex. “The cat that ate the rat which ate the moldy cheese.”

“Jack met the woman.”
Which woman? “The woman who wore flipflops.”  “Jack met the woman who wore flipflops”
If the audience knows which woman wore flipflops [in our classroom there were 8 of them that I could see. And I could only see 2 rows] then that’s all the restricting that is necessary. If we need more information we either change qualifiers “Jack met the woman [who was] in the red dress.”

2. Or add information “Jack met the woman who was wearing a red dress and who had the warrant out for her arrest.”

Front 88

Punctuate: “Hemmingway’s finest novel which is The Old Man and the Sea is a public school standby”

Back 88

shouldn’t be punctuated because “finest” is subjective and isn’t an immediate reference.

Front 89

Punctuate: “Hemmingway’s first novel The Sun Also Rises is a public school standby”

Back 89

“Hemmingway’s first novel, The Sun Also Rises, is a public school standby” however, should be punctuated because “first novel” is an immediate identification, rendering the actual title an appositive.

Front 90

Vacuous move means:

Back 90

the meaning of the sentence doesn’t change.
The warrant identified the woman. - [the woman] whom the warrant identified.

Front 91

Any time the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause,

Back 91

it can be deleted.
Becomes |NP| |0| |NP| |V| |X|
Jack met |The woman| |0| |the warrant| |Identified| |X|

Front 92

Type 1 Relative Reduction

Back 92

If the relative pronoun is not the subject of a relative clause, it can be deleted.

If we delete the relative pronoun that is NOT the subject of the clause, the identity is still there, and the syntactic function is empty.

“A problem everyone who has driven and automobile has been called upon to solve may be used as an example of alternative and hypothetical reasoning in simple causes.”

“Everyone WHO has driven an automobile” – in this instance, WHO is the subject of the relative clause and so it cannot be deleted.

“A problem THAT everyone has been called upon to solve” – in this instance, THAT is NOT the subject [everyone is the subject] of the relative clause, and as we see above it has/can be deleted. “That” may be deleted or restored at will because it is not the subject of the clause.

Front 93

_________are unique in that we use them BECAUSE we don’t know the initial reference, so they mess with the standard pronominalization rule. i.e. if we knew the initial reference, we wouldn’t have to ask.

Back 93

Interrogative pronouns

Front 94

There are 9 interrogative pronoun forms:
5 Nouns/Adjectives:

Back 94

Who – Noun: + Human, + nominative.
Whom – Noun: + Human, + accusative
What – Noun: - Human, substitive
Whose – Adjective: +Genitive
Which – Adjective + Definite/particularizing.

Front 95

4 Adverbial pronoun Forms:

Back 95

When – provides time
Where – Location
Why – Motive/Reason
How – Process

Front 96

Method by which we ask questions: (3 items)

Back 96

1. Pronominalize
2. Transport
3. Subject/verb inversion.

"Who did you go to the party with?"
"You went to the party with James."

If “James/Who” is the subject, “go to the party” is the verb, we see how this functions. What was “James” at the end of the sentence becomes “who” at the head. Pronominalize - Transport = subject/verb inversion.

Front 97

_____________are looking for truth/falsity. Posing the question in this way indicates the kind of information we’re looking for.

Back 97

Yes/No or Short Answer questions

Front 98

Contrary to popular belief, Yes/No and Short Answer questions are the ONLY questions which change

Back 98

the intonation curve. A typical question, one using an interrogative, has the same intonation as a statement.

Front 99

__________can technically stand on their own when posing a question, though it sounds archaic: “Have you any chocolate?” opposed to:
“Do you have any chocolate about your person?” “No. Did you really think I would?”

Back 99

Be verbs

Front 100

__________is the normative process for asking a question. It sets up certain expectations of the answer. Though there are questions that violate the transformative process, they carry a different implication. These questions are known as hook questions.

Back 100

The transformative process

Front 101

_________are pronouns used as an complement/predicate which reflect back upon the subject.

Back 101

Reflexive forms

“She cut herself.” Is a basic sentence pattern #7 where the predicate reflects back on the subject. The subject and the predicate are co-referential. They fit any sentence pattern with a NP in the object position – “He is not himself today” = #3
The reflexive pronoun screws with passifying [making passive… there has to be a gerund for that word] a sentence. Typically, any sentence with a transitive verb can be made passive, but because reflexive forms are co-referential they cannot be.

Front 102

Reflexive Personal Pronoun Paradigm

Back 102

1st person: myself/ ourselves (genitive + self/selves)
2nd Person: Yourself/ Yourselves (genitive + self/selves)
3rd Person: Himself, Herself, Itself/ Themselves (accusative +self/selves)

Front 103

__________are essentially reflexive pronouns used appositionally.

Back 103

Intensive pronouns

Eg. “Alice herself did the dishes.” The use of the intensive pronoun “herself” here suggests there is something unusual about Alice’s doing the dishes; it amplifies the importance of Alice. If we say “Alice did the dishes” the essential meaning doesn’t change, but without external context, the amplification/emphasis is lost.
“Alice did the dishes herself” is the same sentence; the intensive pronoun is simply in a different location. Because “Herself” refers back to something feminine, it has to refer back to the head, which is Alice, instead of “dishes”

Front 104

_________is a Noun or Pronoun that is juxtaposed to a nominal to restate, amplify, or intensify the statement. [_______: Amplify, Restate, or Further Extenuate!]
So “Jessica, the student, is finally catching on.” “The student” in this sentence restates and gives meaning to the nominal “Jessica” and therefore functions as an __________.

Back 104

An appositive

Front 105

The Intensive pronoun paradigm is identical to the

Back 105

reflexive

Front 106

_______like interrogative pronouns, messes with the pronominalization rule. They do not have a stated antecedent, so we don’t know the range. The pronoun is non-determinant.

Back 106

Indefinite pronouns

Front 107

There are 3 categories + Combining forms of Indefinite pronouns.

Back 107

1. Quantifiers: enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, more, most
2. Universals: all, both, every, each
3. Partitives: Any, either, neither, none, some.

Partitives sectionalize, they subdivide any given group. “Some of you in this classroom are wearing sandals” subdivides the classroom. “Anyone with a cleft palate blah blah blah” etc.

Front 108

_________ sectionalize, they subdivide any given group. “Some of you in this classroom are wearing sandals” subdivides the classroom. “Anyone with a cleft palate blah blah blah” etc.

Back 108

Partitives

Front 109

Combine forms of Universal and Partitive:

Back 109

Universal: {Every + Body, Thing, One} = Everybody, Everything, Everyone
Partitive: {Any, No, Some + Body, Thing, One} = Anybody, Nobody, Somebody,
Anything, Nothing, Something,
Anyone, No one, Someone

Front 110

"_______" is the penultimate pronoun and can function in ways which other pronouns cannot. While other pronouns replace noun phrases, “_____” can replace individual nouns within the noun phrase.

Back 110

one

Eg. “Did you see the woman who walked down the hall? Man was she beautiful!” “Which one?” “The one who walked down the hall.” - “One” replaces/pronominalizes “the woman.” Or, “The big hungry dog.” Can become “The big hungry one” they’re always hungry though, so maybe “hungry” isn’t the best modifier for dogs… :)

Front 111

In a passive sentence, the indefinite pronoun can be

Back 111

deleted.
Deleting indefinite pronouns in a passive sentence is really deleting a redundancy clause. This is NOT type 1 relative reduction, but it’s similar enough. Indefinite pronouns do not label a specific subject, so by making a statement that’s subject is an indefinite passive, we can remove agency.
Eg. Active: “Someone choked the kitten.”
Passive: “The kitten was choked by someone”
Passive deleted: “The kitten was choked.” We remove agency, because it doesn’t matter.

Front 112

Modification: Indefinite pronouns allow us to

Back 112

post-pose a modifying adjective.
Eg. “I want someone sweet.” “sweet” modifies “someone.” The meaning of the sentence would change from “I want someone who is sweet” to “I want this person to be sweet” if we said “I want Sally sweet.” It doesn’t really make sense.
Alternate example: “He placed something important in the barrel.” “Important” modifies “something,” not “barrel,” so it too is postposed.

Front 113

Social reciprocity is “a response in kind” – *** for tat, etc. ___________ pronouns are pretty much the same thing. They relate equally to each other.

Back 113

Reciprocal

Front 114

There are only 2 basic reciprocal pronouns.

Back 114

Each other – refers to 2 individual things
Another – refers to multiple individual things

Alternate form eg. Matthew Arnold, in his poem “The Dover Beach” writes “Let us be true, one to the other” “One to the other” is a form of “One another”