Neuropsychology Ch 9 (225-242)

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memory affected by many disorders (4)

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such as Alzheimer's disease, toxic conditions, loss of oxygen, and head injury

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anterograde amnesia

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loss of the ability to encode and learn new information after a event

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of old memories from before an event or illness

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brain injury causes what kind of amnesia

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usually anterograde or anterograde-retrograde

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sensory memory

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fleeting, nearly unlimited capacity

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short-term memory (STM)

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limited capacity (7+- 2 bits of information) degrades over a matter of seconds if not rehearsed or transferred to LTM

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long-term memory (LTM)

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unlimited capacity and relatively permanent

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Most common memory disorder

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LTM disorder, STM disorders in a few isolated events

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strong support (double dissociation) for LTM and STM

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lesions that effect LTM but not STM and vice versa

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LTM is not the ability to remember long. Past events but the ability to

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Learn and retain new information

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Remote memory is

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Ability to remember long past events

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Declarative memory

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Explicit and available to conscious awareness

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Nondeclarative memory

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Implicit performance based

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Explicit memories

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Recall or recognition through verbal or nonverbal means

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LTM is the specific ability to learn and retain new information via...

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register information (encode), organized the information in a meaningful way (storage), and recall or recognize the information for use when needed (retrieval)

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remote memory

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concerns memory for long-past events

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introduced the distinction between episodic memory and spatial memory

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Tulving (1972)

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episodic memory

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refers to individual episodes, usually autobiographical, that have specific spatial and temporal tags in memory

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semantic memory

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memory for information and facts that have no specific time tag reference

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declarative aka

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explicit

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procedural aka

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implicit

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memory is ultimately stored in the

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area where it was first processed (implies that auditory memories stored in primary, secondary, or auditory association areas)

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Tulving et al. in 1994,

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developed a model of memory encoding and retrieval called Hemispheric Encoding-Retrieval-Asymmetry (HERA)

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Hemispheric Encoding-Retrieval-Asymmetry (HERA) model proposes...

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the pre-frontal (dorsolateral) region of the L hemisphere involved in episodic encoding, whereas prefrontal area of the R hemisphere retrieval of episodic information

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275 PET and fMRI studies by Cabeza and Nyberg (2000) provided

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partial support for HERA model, L prefrontal region verbal episodic encoding
R prefrontal region retrieval of verbal/nonverbal episodic information

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non verbal encoding yields bilateral and R-lateral

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Prefrontal activation. Also, activation of temporomedial, parietal, medial parietotemporal, temporal, occipital, and cerebellar regions.

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Semantic recall

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L prefrontal area for verbal/nonverbal

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brain regions involved in semantic retrieval

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temporal, anterior cingulate, and cerebellar

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LTM consolidation

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medial temporal lobes, diencephalon, and basal forebrain

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Medial temporal imporant in

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long term declarative memory and centers around hippocampus and medial temporal lobe

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H.M.

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anterograde amnesia caused by bilateral removal of hippocampal formation (hippocampus, dentate gyrus, and the subiculum)

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entorhinal ctx.

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funnels info to hippocampus

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hippocampus involved in

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movement of novel info into long-term storage.

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L medial temporal region activates during

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encoding of verbal material

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bilateral medial temporal region activates during

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nonverbal encoding

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damage to hippocampus causes

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declarative memory deficit

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visual association ctx projects to

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perirhinal ctx

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parietal ctx projects to

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parahippocampal ctx

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perirhinal ctx

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involved in visual recognition

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parahippocampal ctx

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involved in spatial memory

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dorsal medial nucleus implicated in

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memory disorders, initiation and monitoring conscious retrieval of episodic memory.

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damage to dorsal medial nucleus implicated in

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Korsakoff's syndrome and special cases of amnesia

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Korsakoff's syndrome consequence of

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chronic alcoholism (thiamine deficiency)

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degeneration of thalamic dorsomedial nucleus and mammillary bodies in

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Korsakoff's syndrome

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Korsakoff's syndrome symptoms:

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anterograde and retrograde amnesia but procedural memory intact

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basal forebrain implicated in

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long term declarative memory processing

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basal forebrain is

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subcortical part of telencephalon surrounding the inferior tip of the frontal horn and is interconnected w/ limbic structures

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basal forebrain output

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cholinergic to ctx

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inferior communication artery perfuses

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basal forebrain and easily susceptible to stroke

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basal forebrain sends many projections to

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mediotemporal area

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nucleus basalis of Meynert, medial septal nucleus, nucleus of diagonal band of Broca, and substantia innominata are

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basal forebrain structure implicated in memory (cholinergic)

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nucleus basalis of Meynert includes group of large neurons interspersed within

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substaintia innominata

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substantia innominata is a

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gray and white matter area separating globus pallidus from inferior surface of forebrain

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substantia innominata interconnects with

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frontal, parietal, and temporal cortexes

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ventral amygdalofugal pathway

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connects amygdala w/ dorsal medial nucleus of thalamus through the substantial innominata

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medial septal nucleus lies

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at the precommissural end of fornix and projects to hippocampus through fornix

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medial septal nucleus affects memory when

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damage disrupts info flow to hippocampus

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nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca is

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white matter and cell body area located near nucleus basalis projecting to the hippocampus through fornix

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major declarative memory system

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papez circuit

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papez said his looping ciruit involved in

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emotional processing

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lesions in limbic system structures and hippocampus causes

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rabies

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papez circuit involved in

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consolidates information in memory (not emotional processing)

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papez circuit pathway

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From ctx
through cingulate gyrus to parahippocampal gyrus then
through hippocampal formation
to hippocampus

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output system of hippocampal formation

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fornix (1 million fibers, comparable to in size to optic tract)

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fornix relay pathway

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from hippocampal complex arches anteriorly under corpus callosum.

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fornix relays

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info to medial mammilary nucleus of the hypothalamus then projects to anterior nucleus of the thalamus along the mamillo-thalamic tract then to cingulate gyrus

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nondeclarative memory, habit memory, procedural memory, and implicit memory are all the opposite of

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limbic circuitry-based memory

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procedural learning concerns learning of

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procedures, rules, and skills manifested through performance rather than verbalization

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implicit memory implies

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influence by prior experience without conscious awareness

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a single lesion cannot

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erase all nondeclarative memory

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a single lesion can erase

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declarative new learning

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despite H.M.'s severe amnesia for declarative info, he

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improved with practice on certain perceptual motor tasks

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pursuit rotor task

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examinee keeps a stylus on a spinning disk

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reverse mirror reading requires

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individual to trace a maze while looking at it through a mirror

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amnesiacs show normal

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adaptive behavior when wearing prism glasses

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H.M. did not improve on the Tower of Hanoi, a

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complex, nondeclarative, problem solving task

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patients with amnesia showed improvement whereas Huntington's and Parkinson's showed impaired

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learning on illumination key pressing task (serial reaction time learning)

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subcortical striatal pathology central to Huntington's and Parkinson's, suggesting

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involvment in serial reaction-time learning

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serial reaction time learning structures

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striatum, neocortex (1 motor,supplemtary motor, premotor, parietal and occipital cortices)

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serial rxn time learning involves

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perceptual and motor areas supporting visually guided movements

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severely amnesic patients with korsakoffs syndrome showed

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implicit priming (word stem completion paradigm)

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severe amnesia

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persons memory is poor when axaminers demand recall in declarative task

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Primed patients with Korsakoff's syndrome were more likely to

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complete stem with word they had already seen

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amnesic patients with damage to medial and diencephalic brain areas show unimpaired

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show unimpaired implicit perceptual priming

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posterior neocortex decreased activity

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perceptually based implicit priming

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decreased activation of the posterior neoctx reflects

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reduction in neural resources needed to process the content when it recurs

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nondeclarative memory, habit memory, procedural memory, and implicit memory are all the opposite of

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limbic circuitry-based memory

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procedural learning concerns learning of

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procedures, rules, and skills manifested through performance rather than verbalization

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implicit memory implies

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influence by prior experience without conscious awareness

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a single lesion cannot

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erase all nondeclarative memory

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a single lesion can erase

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declarative new learning

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despite H.M.'s severe amnesia for declarative info, he

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improved with practice on certain perceptual motor tasks

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pursuit rotor task

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examinee keeps a stylus on a spinning disk

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reverse mirror reading requires

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individual to trace a maze while looking at it through a mirror

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amnesiacs show normal

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adaptive behavior when wearing prism glasses

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H.M. did not improve on the Tower of Hanoi, a

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complex, nondeclarative, problem solving task

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Which patients showed normal/impaired learning on the key illumination task?

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Amnesics/ Huntington's and Parkinson's disease

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subcortical striatal pathology central to

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Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases and therefore, serial reaction time learning

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regions that exhibit learning related changes during serial rxn time learning

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neocortex (1 motor, supplementary motor, premotor, parietal and occipital cortices)

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severely amnesic patients with Korsakoff's syndrome showed

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implicit priming (chu___, par___, cla__)

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amnesic patients with damage to medial and diencephalic brain areas

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often show unimpaired implicit perceptual priming

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perceptually based implicit priming associated w/

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decreased activity of posterior neocortex

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decreased activation of the posterior neocortex reflects a

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reduction in neural resources needed to process the content when it recurs

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recognition memory (multiple choice)/ priming (coo__) involves

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encoding of phonetic or semantic info/ visual features of info

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visual extrastriate lesion/ amnesia

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causes visual perceptual priming deficits but intact recognition memory/ vice versa

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artificial grammar

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posterior neocortex

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simple nondeclarative memory

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classic/ associative learning

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animals with hippocampus removed

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can still learn simple stimulus-response associations

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motor learning structures:

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cerebellum, basal ganglia, motor strip

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cerebellum aids in

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sequential motor learning

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basal ganglia (caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus circuit) responsible for

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perceptual-motor learning and adaptation

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striatum (caudate and putamen) receives info from/ projects info to

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projected info from cortical sensory areas/ projects to premotor and prefrontal areas

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Huntington's disease develops as

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a progressive subcortical dementia with caudate degeneration

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Choreiform movement caused by caudate degeneration is

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Involuntary, forcible, rapid, jerky movements that may be subtle or become confluent, markedly altering normal patterns of movement.

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Nelson Butters found that

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patients w/ Huntington's disease showed a dissociation in performance from patients w/ Korsakoff's syndrome, amnesia and Alzheimer's disease

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Korsakoff's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease patients outperform Huntington's disease patients on

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motor learning tasks

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Huntington's disease patients perform better than Korsakoff's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease patients on

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perform better on verbal memory tasks

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basal ganglia involved in which kind of memory?

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implicit memory

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N.A. could not

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store moments into LTM

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STM is

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a limited-capacity, rapid-access, input and retrieval system (like computer RAM)

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LTM is an

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unlimited capacity, restricted rate of input and retrieval (like computer ROM)

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STM uses ______ coding

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phonologic coding (acoustic code)

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LTM relys heavily on _____ coding

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semantic coding , or the associative meaning value of info

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unitary view of memory

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LTM depends on STM

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patients with amnesia have

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severe LTM deficits with intact STM

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K.M. (Shallice and Warrington in 1970) suffered L posterior temporal lesion causing

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conduction aphasia and STM verbal memory deficit with intact LTM, providing evidence that STM and LTM are anatomically separate

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working memory is

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influences attention and executive fxns, with 1)mental representation held on-line
2)mental manipulation
3)attention necessary to hold infomation on-line 4) use info from LTM

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Moscovitch and Winocur (2002) believe that Working memory should be called

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working-with-memory

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Baddeley's concept of working memory

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1) central executive
2)articulatory phonologic loop
3)visuospatial sketchpad
4) (new in '02) episodic buffer

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central executive is

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an attention controlling system that supervised and coordinates slave systems (also the propsed deficit in Alzheimer's disease)

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articulatory phonologic loop

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stores speech-based information (important in vocabulary learning)

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visuospatial sketch pad

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manipulates visual and spatail images

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episodic buffer

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(frontal lobes) temporary and limited capacity storage system that holds and integrrates info from different modalities via LTM

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Goldman-Rakic's (1988) study of primates

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working memory points to dorsolateral prefrontal ctx as area that hold information "on-line" as it is processed

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Petrides (1998) identified two areas of prefrontal ctx involved in working memory

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1) ventro-lateral prefrontal ctx (strategic/dynamic retrieval from posterior aspects of brain)
2) mid-dorsolateral frontal ctx (holding information for manipulation)

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selective attention

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people cannot sustain attention to one patricular stimulus

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attentional processing (R hemisphere dominant) uses

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RAS (cotical arousal), limbic structures and cingulate gyrus in information regulation (posterior parietal in conscious attention) (frontal in directing attention resources)

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RAS regulates level of

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cortical activation (arousal)

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RAS begins in/ projects to

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midbrain/ projects to thalamus then to large cortical areas

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RAS activated by

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sensory input by the brainstem

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daily biorythms of

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90 minutes of higher and lower alertness

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sustained attention

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R fronto-parietal-thalamic neural network

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selective visual attention

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thalamus, basal ganglia, superior and inferior colliculi

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Posner and DiGirolamo (1998)

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basal ganglia involved in shifting sets

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focused/ alertenating/ divided attention

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pick out important info/ hold on-line info and orient to new info/ partial out resources to multiple sets of info

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controlled processing involved

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executrion of mental operations in a linear or serial manner with a significant allocation of attentional resources

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attentional deficits common in

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patients with neurologic disease, brain insults, affective disorders, depression, mania,schizophrenia

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drifting off attentional disorder common in

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depression

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schizophrenia attentional deficits

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perseveration, distractibility, orienting to random stimuli

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close to half of schizophrenics show no.../they are called

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galvanic skin conductance response (SCR)/ electrodermal nonresponders

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electrodermal nonresponder schizophrenics more likely to show...

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negaitive symtoms such as apathy, withdrawal, blunted affect, cortical atrophy, chronic elevation of autonomic responses (general hyperarousal)