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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the difference between thinking and language?
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Thinking is the ability to have ideas and infer new ideas from old ones.
Learning is the ability to encode ideas into signals for communication to another. |
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What is a word?
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an arbitrary association between a sound and a meaning
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What is grammar?
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the system that specifies how vocabulary units can be combined into words, phrases, and sentences and how the meaning of a combination can be determined by the meanings of the units and the way they are arranged.
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What is a phoneme?
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a basic sound unit, like a consonant
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Describe the milestones in the development of language in a normal child through high school.
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First months: able to discriminate sounds
5-7 months: first language-like sounds 7-8 months: well-formed syllables 10 months: discriminate phonemes 1 year: first words, babble in sentence-like streams 18 months: learn words more quickly, use words in combination 2 years: speak in rich phrase structures, master grammatical vocabulary of their language 3 years: use grammatical words correctly most of the time, become fluent and expressive |
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What was Chomsky's hypothesis regarding language acquisition by children?
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Children possess innate neural circuitry dedicated to the acquisition of language.
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Have any true precursors of human language been found in other animals?
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No
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Where is Wernicke's area?
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in the posterior superior temporal lobe near the primary auditory cortex (superior temporal gyrus)
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Where is Broca's area?
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adjacent to the region of the motor cortex (precentral gyrus) that controls movement of facial expression, articulation, and phonation.
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How are Broca's and Wernicke's areas connected?
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Through a bidirectional pathway called the arcuate fasciculus which rendezvous through the angular gyrus.
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What is the modern view of language?
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It incorporates vast areas of the lateral cortex and even includes basal ganglia, as opposed to two small areas of the lateral cortex.
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What is aphasia? What are the two most frequent causes of aphasia?
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Language disorders causes by focal brain lesions. The most common causes are stroke and head injury.
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What is are the symptoms of Broca's aphasia?
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Speech is labored, slow, and lacking intonation of normal speech; comprehension is limited and repetition is impaired
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What are the symptoms of Wernicke's aphasia?
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Speech is fluent, abundant, well articulated, and melodic; comprehension and repetition are impaired
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What is conduction aphasia?
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Speech is fluent with some articulatory defects; comprehension is intact or largely preserved; repetition is impaired
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What are the symptoms of Global aphasia?
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Speech is scant, nonfluent; comprehension and repetition are impaired
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What is the hypothetical relationship between Broca's area and short-term working memory?
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Linking two elements requires keeping the first element in one's working memory until the second can be encountered and the two can be joined. Broca's area and associated regions may participate in the verbal short-term memory required for sentence comprehension.
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What is the hypothetical function of Broca's area in language?
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This part of the cortex assembles phonemes into words and words into sentences. It seems to be concerned with the relational aspects of language, which include the grammatical structure of sentences and the proper use of grammatical vocabulary and verbs.
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What is the modern view of the function of Wernicke's area?
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It is no longer considered the center for auditory comprehension, but as a part of a processor of speech sounds that associates the sounds with concepts.
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What areas are damaged in persistent conduction aphasia?
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Left superior temporal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe (BAs 39 and 40)
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What is the hypothetical function of the connectional system?
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It is part of the network required to assemble phonemes into words and coordinates speech articulation.
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What is the relationship between global aphasia and other aphasias?
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It is a combination of the features of the other aphasias: complete loss of language comprehension, speech formulation, and the ability to repeat sentences.
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What is the common cause of global aphasia?
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Damage to the anterior language region, basal ganglia and insula, superior temporal gyrus, and posterior language regions; it may be caused by a large infarct to the middle cerebral artery supplying the region
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What are the two important contributions of the right hemisphere to language?
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It is important for communicative and emotional prosody (stress, timing, and intonation). Patients with right anterior lesions produce inappropriate prosody, and those with posterior right lesions fail to interpret others' prosody. It is also important for pragmatics (social context): incorporating sentences into coherent narrative, using appropriate language in particular settings, jokes, etc.
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Describe the ability of the right hemisphere to take on the responsibility for language in young children (including the limit of this compensation).
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When adults lose the left hemisphere there is complete and permanent loss of language. Children without a left hemisphere were impaired with language but still had some function. They comprehend most sentences but have trouble with complex sentences.
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What is alexia?
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word blindness, disruption of ability to read
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What is agraphia?
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disruption in the ability to write
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How old is reading?
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Less than 5000 years
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How old is universal literacy?
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Less than a century
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What is development dyslexia? What percentage of the population is affected?
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Difficulty in learning to read and spell despite normal eyesight, hearing, and adequate education and IQ. 10-30% of the population is affected.
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What are the two forms of memory?
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Implicit (non-declarative)
Explicit (declarative) |
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Compare implicit and explicit memory.
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1) Implicit memory is recalled unconsciously and is involved in training reflexive motor or perceptual skills.
2) Explicit memory is factual knowledge and what these facts mean. This is recalled in a deliberate conscious effort. 3) Explicit memory is flexible and involves association of multiple bits of information while implicit memory is more rigid and tightly connected to the original stimulus conditions under which the learning occurred. |
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Compare episodic and semantic knowledge.
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Episodic information is memory of events and personal experience, like when we first heard a song.
Semantic knowledge is a memory of facts like learning the capitals of the states. |
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What region of the brain is responsible for explicit memory?
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Medial temporal lobe
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What is the relationship between Alzheimer's disease, explicit memory, and the medial temporal lobe?
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Alzheimer's is the major degenerative disease that affects explicit memory storage. The first pathological change of Alzheimer's occurs in the entorhinal cortex, the gateway to and from the hippocampus.
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What is the function of the polymodal assocation area?
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It's the part of the temporal lobe that originally feeds information into the medial temporal lobe, where memories are formed and temporary explicit memory is stored. Slowly, the memories are transferred to the association cortex (neocortex) where long-term explicit memory is stored.
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Explain the statement that "there is no general semantic memory store; semantic knowledge is not stored in a single region" using an elephant.
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If we see a photo of an elephant, the visual image becomes associated (through experience) with other forms of knowledge about elephants (characteristics, sounds, uses, locations). These associations fall into different categories and are stored separately.
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Which region of the brain stores episodic memory?
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Prefrontal cortex
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What are the 4 types of processing that make it possible to store information as semantic and episodic memory?
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Encoding
Consolidation Storage Retrieval |
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What is encoding?
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Refers to processes by which newly learned information is attended to and processed when first encountered.
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What is consolidation?
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Those processes that alter the newly stored information so as to make it more stable for long-term storage
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What is storage?
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refers to the mechanism and sites by which memory is retained over time
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What is retrieval?
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refers to those processes that permit the recall and use of the stored information
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Which types of memory processing involve working memory?
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Encoding
Retrieval |
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What are the three component systems of working memory?
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Attentional control
Articulatory loop Visuospatial sketch pad |
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What is attentional control?
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the central executive system actively focuses perception on specific events in the environment, and regulates information flow through to the rehearsal systems.
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What is the articulatory loop?
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a rehearsal/storage system with rapidly decaying memory trace that allows one to hold in mind, through sub-vocal repetition, words or numbers
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What is the visuospatical sketchpad?
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A storage system that stores visual and spatial location of objects to be remembered.
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In what general regions of the brain do we find the attentional control system, articulatory loop, and visuospatial sketch pad?
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Attentional control system: prefrontal cortex
Articulatory loop: posterior association cortices Visuospatial sketch pad: posterior association cortices, extrastriate cortex, and parietal cortex |
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Give one example of the type of the information stored by the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch pad.
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Articulatory loop: phone number to be dialed
Visuospatial sketchpad: stores the image of a face met at a party |
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What are the two major subclasses of implicit memory?
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Nonassociative
Associative |
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What is nonassociative memory?
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learning about the properties of a single stimulus
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What is associative memory?
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learning about the relationship between two stimuli or between stimulus and behavior
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Describe the effect on the magnitude of the EPSP of a brief high-frequency train of stimuli on any one of the major pathways in the hippocampus.
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Increases the amplitude of the EPSP in the target hippocampal neurons. This is called long-term potentiation.
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Describe the two phases of LTP and the difference that distinguishes them.
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Early LTP: one stimulus train produces an early short-term phase lasting 1-3 hours; this component does not require new protein synthesis
Late LTP: four or more trains induce a more persistent phase of LTP that lasts for at least 24 hours and requires new protein and RNA synthesis. |
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Describe the second messenger pathway activated in the late phase of LTP and the molecular consequences of this.
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After further repeated trains of APs, Ca2+ influx recruits an adenylyl cyclase which indirectly activates the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAMP kinase), leading to its translocation to the nucleus where it phosphorylates the CREB protein. CREB, in turn, activates targets that are thought to lead to structural changes.
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Describe the two structural consequences of late phase LTP that have been suggested by cellular-physiological studies.
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New presynaptic machinery
New clusters of postsynaptic receptors |
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What are the two types of nonassociative learning?
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Habituation: a decreases in response to a benign stimulus when repeatedly presented
Sensitization: an enhanced response to a wide variety of stimuli after the presentation of an intense or noxious stimulus. |
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What are the two types of associative learning?
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Classical conditioning: a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus in order to transform an unconditioned response to a conditioned response.
Operant conditioning: trial-and-error; behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated, and behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are usually not repeated. |
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Contrast classical and operant conditioning.
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Classical conditioning is the formation of a predictive relationship between two stimuli, and operant conditioning is the formation of a predictive relationship between a stimulus and a behavior.
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What region of the brain plays a role in classical conditioning when the conditioned response is something like an eye blink?
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cerebellum
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What region of the brain is involved when conditioned responses are emotional?
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amygdala
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