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144 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are motor neurons?
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-nerve cells that cause muscles to contract
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What are lower motor neurons?
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-motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscle
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Where are lower motor neuron cell bodies located?
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-in the brainstem or the spinal cord
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Where are the lower motor neuron axons located?
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-form part of many spinal nerves and cranial nerves
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What is the motor point?
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-where peripheral (motor) nerve enters the belly of a skeletal muscle
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What is the neuromuscular junction (myoneural junction)?
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-the synapse between a lower motor neuron and a muscle fiber
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At the neuromuscular junction what neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal?
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-acetylcholine (Ach)
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What does acetylcholine bind to?
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-receptors at the motor end plate
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What is a motor unit?
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-a single lower motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
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How is muscle force controlled?
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-by activating (recruiting) individual motor units until the desired amount of force is achieved -small motor units are recruited first and gradually larger motor units are added to increase the tension in the muscle |
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What do motor units control?
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-control muscle tension and force
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What are upper motor neurons?
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-connect the brain with lower motor neurons
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Where are the cell bodies of upper motor neurons located?
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-in the cerebral cortex and brainstem
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What other structures influence movement?
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-cerebellum -basal ganglia -supplementary moto area |
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Explain proportional representation
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-motor homunculus is flexible and can be altered by increased or decreased use of a body part |
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What is the corticospinal (pyramidal) tract?
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-axons that connect the cortex to spinal cord lower motor neurons
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What are the two tracts that the cortiospinal (pyramidal) tract splits into?
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-Lateral corticospinal tract -anterior corticospinal tract |
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What is the corticobulbar tract?
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-axons that connect the cortex to lower motor neurons located in cranial nerves
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What does the corticobulbar tract control?
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-controls limbs (upper) -speech -eye movement -facial expressions |
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What does the lateral corticospinal tract control?
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-muscles of neck, trunk, and proximal upper extremity |
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Explain the extrapyramidal tract
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-originate in four brainstem nuclei -reticular formation -vestibular nuclei -superior colliculus -red nucleus |
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What does the reticulospinal tracts control?
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-trunk control -posture -gait |
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What does the vestibulospinal tracts control?
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-balance -neck -trunk -proximal limb extensors -eye muscles |
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What does the tectospinal tract control?
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-reflex movement of neck
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What diseases target upper motor neurons specifically?
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-polio -ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) |
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What do lower motor neuron injuries result in?
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-hypotonia -hyporeflexia -skeletal muscle atrophy -muscle weakness -paralysis |
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What do upper motor neuron injuries result in?
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-paralysis -paresis -hypertonia -hyperreflexia |
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Define muscle tone
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-the amount of resistance a muscle has to passive stretching
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What are the two components of muscle tone?
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-mechanical component -neural component |
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What are the factors that can affect muscle tone?
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-environment -emotions -cold temperatures -anxiety -fear -warmth -massage -relaxation |
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What is the cerebellum's contribution to movement?
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***motor coordination*** -balance -coordination of posture and gait -coordination of distal limb movements and small muscles for speech |
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What are the three functional regions of the cerebellum?
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-vestibulocerebellum -spinocerebellum -cerebrocerebellum |
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What is the function of the vestibulocerebellum?
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-coordinates balance
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What is the function of the spinocerebellum?
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-coordination of posture and gait
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What is the function of the cerebrocerebellum?
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-coordinates distal limb movements and movements of small muscles used for speech
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What does damage to the vestibulocerebellm result in?
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-disequilibrium -->difficulty maintaining and correcting movement |
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What is disequilibrium
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-difficulty maintaining and correcting balance |
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What are the symptoms of disequilibrium
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-postural static tremor and truncal ataxia
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What does damage to the spinocerebelum result in?
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-gait ataxia
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What is gait ataxia?
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-displays an unsteady, wide-based, staggering gait with legs spread far apart in an attempt to maintain postural stability
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What does damage to the cerebrocerebellum result in?
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-ataxic movement
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What are the symptoms of ataxic movement
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-asynergia, dysdiadochokinesis, and ataxia, dysmetria -causes disturbances in the timing, force, and direction of movement |
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What is asynergia
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-lack of cooperation between muscles that usually work together
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What is ataxia
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-uncoordinated movement -inability to coordinate muscles when performing a voluntary movement |
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What is dysdiadochokinesis
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-difficulty doing rapid, alternating movements such as pronation and supination
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What is dysmetria
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-a movement may stop before the target is attained or the limb may overshoot the target
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What is the basal ganglia's role in movement?
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-initiation and inhibition of movement -initiation of though and emotion |
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What is the cause of Parkinson's disease?
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-there is not enough dopamine
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What is dystonia
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-recurrent muscle spasms -from excess dopamine |
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What is athetoid
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-low, writhing movement -from excess of dopamine |
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What is Cognition?
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-the ability to think, plan, and solve problems
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What does cognition require?
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-focus, concentration, attention, and working memory
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What is emotion?
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-the feelings and reactions that occur in response to thoughts, beliefs, or experiences
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Where are the control centers for cognition?
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-in the cognitive cortex
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What are normal cognitive functions?
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-specialized in intellectual functions that include planning ahead, anticipating consequences, exercising judgment, displaying reasoning, analytical thinking, and solving problems -delayed gratification -inhibition of inappropriate or potentially dangerous impulses |
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What are deficits that manifest with a lesion in the cognitive cortex?
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-great difficulty focusing and concentrating -unable to shift attention to new topics -confused -disorientated -trouble following directions |
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What is perseveration?
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-unable to shift attention to new topics
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What intervention techniques are used for prefrontal syndrome?
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-minimizing distraction -setting short term, attainable goals -providing easily understandable directions -maintaining a calm demeanor -providing frequent reassurance and reorientation |
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Where are the control centers for emotion located ?
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-primarily on the medial aspect of the cerebral cortex -limbic system |
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What is the emotional cortex responsible for?
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-social behavior -emotional responses -preferences |
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What are normal emotive functions?
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-emotion is subjective, internal experience -it can be agreeable -it can be disagreeable -can vary in intensity from mild to overwhelming |
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What deficits manifest when there is a lesion in the emotional cortex (limbic system)
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-produce a flattened affect -display few preferences -exaggerated emotional responses to less important events -lack empathy -engage in thoughtless behavior -may also affect cognitive functions |
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What is the purpose of a prefrontal lobotomy?
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-to pacify patients with mental illnesses who displayed agitation or violent behaviors
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What is learning?
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-the process of acquiring memory
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What is memory?
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-the result of the learning process
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What is learning based on?
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-on structural changes that occur within individual neurons, along with changes in the connections between them (synapses) -on neuroplasticity |
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What is neuroplasticity?
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-the flexibility or adaptability available to the brain
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What are the two types of learning and memory?
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-declarative -nondeclarative |
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What is declarative memory and learning?
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-memories that can be described in words
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What are the two subsections of Declarative memory and learning?
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-semantic memory -episodic memory |
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What is semantic memory?
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-facts and figures
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What is episodic memory?
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-a kind of inner diary of life events and experiences
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What is nondeclarative learning and memory?
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-motor learning -cannot usually be expressed in words -includes both emotional responses and motor skills or habits |
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What is another word for declarative learning and memory?
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-explicit learning and memory
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What is another word for nondeclarative learning and memory?
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-implicit learning and memory
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What are the four stages of declarative learning and memory?
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-acquisition -consolidation -storage -retrieval |
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Describe the acquisition stage of declarative learning
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-first stage -the brain is taking in or acquiring the new knowledge -requires the learner to be actively engaged in the learning process, focused, and motivated to learn |
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Describe the consolidation stage of declarative learning
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-the newly acquired knowledge is encoded into existing neural circuits -it is enhanced by sleep, exercise, and repetition of learning |
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Describe the storage stage of declarative learning
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-stored in the cerebral cortex in different regions
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Describe the retrieval stage of declarative learning
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-the brain accesses or remembers the learned information
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What are the three stages of nondeclarative learning?
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-acquisition -storage -accessed |
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Describe the acquisition stage of nondeclarative learning
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-all the motor areas of the brain and spinal cord are active -learner must practice the new motor skill in order to acquire it |
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Describe the storage stage of nondeclarative learning
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-retaining the motor skills in the brain as a motor skill memory -muscle memory |
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Describe the accessed stage of nondeclarative learning
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-all motor regions of the brain must be active: motor cortex, supplementary motor area, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and descending motor tracks -perform many activities almost automatically |
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What are the types of short term memory?
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-working memory -true short term memory |
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What is working memory?
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-lasts from seconds to minutes
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What is true short term memory?
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-lasts from minutes to a few days
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What are the changes that occur in the brain with short term memory?
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-rely on biological changes in synapses that already exist within the central nervous system -sensitization -change in receptors and neurotransmitters |
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What are the changes that occur in the brain with long term memory?
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-involves the creation of new synapses -synaptogenesis -formation of new axon terminals |
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What are the different components of language?
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-hearing and understanding speech -ability to formulate words -organized words into sentences -reading and writing -ability to understand the meaning of language |
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What is Wernicke's aphasia? (receptive aphasia) |
-the inability to understand both spoken and written language
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What is Broca's aphasia? (expressive aphasia) |
-can usually understand spoken language and can think clearly they are sometimes unable to speak at all or may say just one word
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What is global aphasia?
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-can neither understand nor formulate language -when a stoke or brain injury damage both Wernicke's and Broca's areas |
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When does the human nervous system begin its development?
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-18 days after the egg is fertilized, and continues into early adulthood
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Where does the neural tube develop?
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-first in the lower cervical region and then closes first in a cranial direction then towards the sacrum
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When is the neural tube almost completely closed?
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-24 days of gestation
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What is anencephaly?
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-lack of brain development
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What is spina bifida?
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-incomplete closure of the spinal cord
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What deficits occur when the neural tube fails to close correctly?
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-anencephaly -spina bifida |
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What is spina bifida occulta?
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-the spinal cord and cauda equina develop normally and are covered by skin but the vertebral arches are incomplete
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What is meningeocele?
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-when the vertebral arches fail to develop and a large sac of meninges protrudes from the back. Spinal cord is in correct place within the vertebral column
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What is myelomeningocele?
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-when the vertebral arches fail to develop and a large sac of meninges protrudes from the back and the spinal cord is located within the sac with the meninges
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What develops from the neural tube?
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-the brain and spinal cord |
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What occurs at the end of the first trimester? (12 weeks)
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-the basic organizational structure of the nervous system is in place
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What are the steps in prenatal development?
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-migration -differentiate -myelination |
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What is migration?
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-neurons move to their proper location
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What is differentiation?
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-cells acquire a specific structure and function |
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What is myelination?
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-myelin is formed by glial cells -begins at about 20 weeks of gestation and mostly complete around age 2 |
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What is synaptogenesis?
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-process of synapse formation
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What are the primary postnatal cellular processes?
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-myelination -synaptogenesis -apoptosis |
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What is apoptosis?
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-programed cell death
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When are the primary motor and sensory cortex myelinated?
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-about 16 months of age
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What is the last part of the brain to be fully mature?
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-prefrontal cortex -not complete until early adulthood |
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What causes developmental disorders?
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-abnormal growth and development of the CNS -result of the birth process -environmental causes -infections -prematurity -oxygen deprivation -no known causes |
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What is Cerebral Palsy (CP)?
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-a nonprogressive motor disorder that occurs prenatally, during the birth process, or shortly after birth
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What causes Cerebral Palsy (CP)?
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-infection -lack of oxygen -intraventricular hemorrhage -premature birth -brain injury |
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What are they symptoms of Cerebral Palsy (CP)?
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-issues with senstation -problems with language -motor issues -cognition |
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What are the four major types of cerebral palsy (CP)?
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-Spastic cerebral palsy -athetoid cerebral palsy -ataxic cerebral palsy -mixed cerebral palsy |
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What is spastic cerebral palsy?
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-results from damage to upper motor neurons -spastic hemiplegia: spastic paralysis on one side |
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What is athetoid cerebral palsy?
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-characterized by slow, writhing movements of the limbs -caused by damage to the basal ganglia |
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What is ataxic cerebral palsy?
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-results from cerebellar injury -patients display uncoordinated movements |
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What is mixed cerebral palsy?
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-two or more movement dysfunctions at the same time
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What is Arnold-Chiari Malformation?
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-characterized by a malformed hindbrain -the inferior medulla and part of the cerebellum protrude down through the foramen magnum into the spinal canal |
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What is hydrocephalus?
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-blockage of CSF flow through the ventricles and subarachnoid space -head and brain swell |
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What is Down Syndrome?
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-a genetic disorder that occurs in about 1/800 births -results from the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21 |
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What are characteristics of down syndrome?
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-cognitive disability and hypotonia -brains are smaller -fewer cortical neurons -abnormally formed dendrites -undifferentiated cells |
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What is Autism?
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-a neurodevelopmental genetic disorder -characterized by impaired social interaction and communication |
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What effect does aging have on the brain?
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-small loss of neurons -brain shrinks -fewer synapses, postsynaptic receptors, dendrites -smaller amounts of neurotransmitter -sensory receptors become less senstive |
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What is a traumatic brain injury (TBI)?
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-mechanical trauma to the brain that occurs when the head strongly impacts an object or when an object strikes the head
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What is a coupe injury?
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-when the head meets something solid the brain is injured at the site of impact
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What is a contre-coup injury?
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when the brain meets something solid and the force is large enough to cause the brain to bounce against the opposite side of the skull
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What are focal lesions?
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-localized to a specific parts of the brain -symptoms are based on what area of the brain is impacted |
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What is a diffuse axonal injury?
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-widespread shearing of the CNS axons
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What is shaken baby syndrome?
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-when young children are shaken with great force, the brain vibrates back and forth within the skull -causes multiple focal lesions, shears numerous axons, causing wide ranging damage that cannot be localized to a specific area |
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What is hypoxia?
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-decreased oxygen
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What is Anoxia?
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-lack of oxygen
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How long can neurons survive without oxygen?
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-3 minutes
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What are the three levels of consciousness?
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-coma -vegetative state -minimally conscious state |
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What is a coma?
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-eyes are closed, patient is unaware of anything, stage last up to 4 weeks
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What is a vegetative state?
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-eyes are open, patient can sleep and wake but is unaware of environment
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What is a minimally conscious state?
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-patient has some awareness of the environment and may be able to respond to simple questions or commands
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What are the mechanisms that contribute to recovery?
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-axonal sprouting -activation of parallel pathways -neurogensis |
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What is neglect?
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-patient forgets about limb but when attention is brought to it they recognize that it is their limb
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What is denial?
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-patient doesn't recognize/register that the limb is a part of their body.
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