Neuro 3

Front 1

What are the 2 main components of the cerebellum?

Back 1

Cerebellar cortex (cerebrocerebellum, vestibulocerebellum, spinocerebellum)
Deep cerebellar nuclei (dentate nucleus, fastigial nucleus, interposed nuclei)

Front 2

What is the primary function of the cerebellum?

Back 2

Detect the "motor error" between an intended movement adn the actual movement and to reduce the error.

Front 3

Describe the cerebrocerebellum aka PONTOCEREBELLUM

Back 3

Largest part of cerebellum.
Receives input from many areas of the cerebral cortex which go through the pontine nuclei (cortico-ponto-cerebellar projection)
Concerned with the regulation of highly skilled movements (including speech).

Front 4

Describe the vestibulocerebellum.

Back 4

Comprises the caudal lobes and includes the flocculus and nodulus.
Receives input from the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. Concerned with regulation of movements underlying posture and equilibrium.

Front 5

Describe the spinocerebellum.

Back 5

Only part that receives input from the spinal cord.
Lateral part aka PARAVERMAL region: movements of distal muscles.
Central part aka VERMIS: movement of proximal muscle and regulates eye movements.

Front 6

What are the pontine nuclei?

Back 6

the cell bodies in the base of the pons that give rise to the pathway through the middle cerebellar peduncle.

Front 7

Describe the pathway through the MIDDLE cerebellar peduncle.

Back 7

Frontal/parietal cortex --> pontine nuclei in the pons --> cross the midline within the pons --> to cerebellum (cerebrocerebellum) via the middle cerebellar peduncle.

Front 8

Describe the pathway through the INFERIOR cerebellar peduncle.

Back 8

Axson from the inferior olive, spinal cord (Clarke's column), and vestibular nuclei enter the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. DO NOT CROSS THE MIDLINE = IPSILATERAL
**may alos include locus ceruleus, reticular formation, superior colliculus, and red nucleus?

Front 9

Which neurons project to the SPINOCEREBELLUM?

Back 9

Dorsal nucleus of Clarke and reticular formation (largely concerned with the activity of postural muscles)

*remains ipsilateral

Front 10

Which neurons project to the VESTIBULOCEREBELLUM?

Back 10

Vestibular axons from CN VIII terminate in the cortex of the flocculo-nodular lobe and axons from the vestibular nuclei project to the cortex of the flocculo-nodular lobe with collateral branches to the fastigiate nucleus.
(remains ipsilateral)

Front 11

Describe the projections FROM the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex.

Back 11

Cerebellar cortex -->
deep cerebellar nuclei -->
CROSS THE MIDLINE (decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncle) THRU the superior cerebellar peduncle -->
Ventral lateral (VL) complex of thalamus -->
Primary motor and premotor cortex

Front 12

What is the exception to the fact that all projections from the cerebellar cortex go to the deep cerebellar nuclei?

Back 12

There is a direct projection from the vestibulocerebellum to the vestibular nuclei.

Front 13

The cerebrocerebellum, vestibulocerebellum, and spinocerebellum project to which deep nuclei?

Back 13

cerebro --> dentate
vestibulo --> fastigial nucleus
spino --> interposed nuclei

except for reticular formation afferents: fastigiate nucleus + spinocerebellum

Front 14

What are the output targets of the cerebellum?

Back 14

Motor cortex
red nucleis
vestibular nuclei
superior colliculus
reticular formation

Front 15

What are the 3 layers of the cerebellar cortex?

Back 15

molecular layer (outside)
Purkinje cell layer
granule cell layer (inside)

Front 16

What is found in the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex?

Back 16

Stellate cells
Basket cells
Dendrites of Golgi cells
Parallel fibers
Dendrites of Purkinje cells

Front 17

What is found in the Purkinje cell layer?

Back 17

Cell body of the Purkinje cell only

Front 18

Mossy fibers (which come from all the afferents to the cerebellar cortex EXCEPT for inf olive) synapse on what?

Back 18

Granule cells in synaptic clusters called glomeruli in the granule cell layer.

Front 19

Climbing fibers

Back 19

arise in the inferior olive;
modifies the efficacy of the parallel fiber--Purkinje cell connection.

Synapses are strongly excitatory.

Front 20

Dysdiadochokinesia

Back 20

difficulty performing rapid alternating movements such as heel-to-shin and/or finger-to-nose tests (damage to spinocerebellum)

Front 21

Dysmetria

Back 21

Over and underreaching (damage to spinocerebellum)

Front 22

Why do alcoholics develop ataxia?

Back 22

Degeneration in the anterior portion of the spinocerebellum. Specifically affects movement in the lower limbs = wide and staggering gait.

Front 23

What are the names of the interposed nuclei?

Back 23

Globose and emboliform

Front 24

Describe the pathway of the superior cerebellar peduncle.

Back 24

Primarily efferents from cerebellum to thalamus & red nucleus.

Front 25

Cerebellar afferents from below T-1

Back 25

Called the Posterior spinocerebellar pathway.
a. receptors - proprioceptors such as muscle spindles
b. Central processes of primary afferents which enter dorsal root of spinal cord from T-1 down synapse in a nucleus in the spinal cord called nucleus dorsalis for projections to cerebellum
c. Second order fibers from nucleus dorsalis ascend in ipsilateral posterior spinocerebellar tract and enter via the inferior cerebellar peduncle, send collateral branches into the globose/emboliform nuclei and terminate in the vermal and paravermal regions of the cerebellum.

Front 26

Cerebellar afferents from above T-1

Back 26

Cuneocerebellar pathway
a. Fibers enter fasciculus cuneatus, ascend to the ipsilateral medulla where they synapse in a nucleus called the lateral (accessory) cuneatus nucleus and synapse.

b. From lateral (accessory) cuneatus nucleus - fibers enter via inferior cerebellar peduncle, send collateral branches into the globose/emboliform nuclei and terminate in the vermal and paravermal cerebellar cortex.

Front 27

Parkinson's Disease

Back 27

Loss of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons so, facilitates the indirect route --> excites globus pallidus, inhibits thalamus, less activation of upper motor neurons in the motor cortex.

Hypokinetic movement disorder.

Front 28

Huntington's Disease

Back 28

Degeneration of the medium spiny neurons that project to the external segment of the globus pallidus.
Globus pallidus becomes abnormally active --> inhibits subthalamic nucleus so you don't get excitation of the globus pallidus internal so thalamus is activated --> upper motor neurons inappropriately activated.

Hyperkinetic movement disorder.

Front 29

What are the 4 types of cortical neurons?

Back 29

Pyramidal neurons
Spindle neurons
Granular interneurons
Cells of Marinotti

Front 30

Pyramidal neurons

Back 30

Contains an apical dendrite directed toward the cortical surface and the axon projects into the white matter.

Neurotransmitter: glutamate

Front 31

Spindle neurons

Back 31

axis-oriented perpendicular to the cortical surface.
Spindle-shaped soma present in deep cortical layers (VI).

Neurotransmitter: glutamate

Front 32

Granular interneurons

Back 32

Contains multiple short neurites.

Neurotransmitter: GABA

Front 33

Cells of Marinotti (Marinotti neurons)

Back 33

Present in the DEEPEST layer of the cortex. Form SHORT branching dendrites and axon that BOTH project ot the superficial cortical layers.

Neurotransmitter: glutamate

Front 34

What are the layers of the cerebral cortex?

Back 34

(6)
Molecular layer (primary synaptic layer)
External granular layer
External pyramidal layer
Internal granular layer
Internal pyramidal layer
Multiform layer (pyramidal, spindle, Marinotti)

Front 35

Describe the homotypical cortex and give an example.

Back 35

Granular cortex, so contains all 6 layers including the internal granular layer.

Ex: prefrontal association cortex (includes BA anterior to area 6)

Front 36

Describe the heterotypical cortex and give an example.

Back 36

Agranular cortex = no internal granular layer.

Ex: primary motor cortex (BA 4)

Front 37

Describe the Koniocortex and give an example.

Back 37

A type of GRANULAR CORTEX (homotypical) showing reduced internal PYRAMIDAL layer but exaggerated internal granular layer.

Ex: primary visual cortex (BA 17).

Front 38

Describe the cortical layers of the hippocampus.

Back 38

3 cortical layers corresponding to layer I, V, VI of the neocortex.

Front 39

According to the FUNCTIONAL roles, the cortex can be divided into which areas?

Back 39

(5)
Primary sensory areas
Sensory association areas
High order association areas
Motor association
Primary motor regions

Front 40

Describe the (1) primary sensory areas.

Back 40

Visual: BA 17
Auditory: BA 41,42
Somatosensory: BA 1,2,3

Front 41

Describe the (2) sensory association areas.

Back 41

Visual association: BA 18,19,7,21,37,39
Auditory association: BA 21, 22
Somatosensory association: BA 5,7

Front 42

Describe the (3) high order association areas.

Back 42

Parieto-temporal: BA 39,40
Prefronal: anterior to area 6
Limbic: Areas 11, 23,24,28,38

Front 43

Describe the (4) motor association areas

Back 43

Areas 6 and 8

Responsible for construction of COMPLEX movements.

Front 44

Describe the (5) primary motor cortex.

Back 44

BA 4
Receives input from ventral anterior and ventral lateral (VA/VL) nuclei conveying motor information from the basal ganglia and cerebellum.

Responsible for execution of simple specific movements-displays somatotopic organization. Projects to the subcortical motor centers.

Front 45

The cortical limbic areas recive input from which fibers?

Back 45

From the limbic thalamic nuclei: anterior and lateral dorsal.

Front 46

The primary sensory areas (visual, auditory, somatosensory) receive input from which fibers?

Back 46

From sensory specific nuclei such as ventral posterior, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei conveying direct information from sensory organs.

Front 47

The association areas (sensory, high order, and motor) receive input from which fibers?

Back 47

Association thalamic nuclei convey multimodal sensory information to these areas.

These nuclei include: dorsomedial, pulvinar, and posterior nuclei [i guess these are the *specific* nuclei?]

Front 48

What are the NONSPECIFIC thalamic nuclei and what do they do?

Back 48

Reticular, intralaminar, midline

Project diffusely to all cortical layers and are involved in arousal and wakefulness.

Front 49

What is the difference between association input and commissural input?
What is their similarity?

Back 49

Association: input from cortical areas of the SAME hemisphere.

Commissural: input from cortex of the OTHER hemisphere.

Both synapse largely in layers I, II, & III.

Front 50

What are corticostriatal fibers?

Back 50

Fibers from the cortex to the BASAL GANGLIA.

Involved in sensorimotor, associative, and limbic activity.

Front 51

Modality specific and association thalamic nuclei project where?

Back 51

Largely to layer IV of the cortex (internal granular layer).

Front 52

Axons to subcortical regions except the thalamus originate where?

Back 52

Pyramidal cells in layer V.

Front 53

Axons to the thalamus originate where?

Back 53

Pyramidal and spindle cells of layer VI.

Front 54

Axons to the ipsilateral and contralateral cortex originate where?

Back 54

Pyramidal cells in layer II and III.

Front 55

Brodmanns's Areas 18 and 19

Back 55

Visual association cortex: occipital lobe.
Processing of spatial information.

Front 56

Brodmann Area 7

Back 56

Visual association cortex: parietal cortex.
Many cells respond to POSITION of th eimage within the visual field while some respond to both position and touching in the area of the face corresponding to this field.
Damage can result in simultagnosia, hemispatial agnosia, and contralateral agnosia.

Front 57

Simultagnosia

Back 57

Results from bilateral damage to BA 7 (parietal cortex; visual association cortex).
Inability to see multiple objects.

Front 58

Hemispatial agnosia

Back 58

Damage to only 1 side of the area 7. Results in neglect of the 1/2 of the object observed contralateral to the damaged hemisphere independently of the position of the object in the visual field.

Front 59

Contralateral agnosia

Back 59

The object presented ot the eye contralateral to the damaged hemisphere is ignored.
Damage to 1 side of BA 7.

Front 60

Brodmann's Areas 18, 19, 21, 37

Back 60

18 + 19 = occipital cortex
21 + 37 = temporal cortex
Recognition of images like faces.

Right hemisphere: processes the object as a whole and is involved in recognition of specific images.

Left hemisphere: processes the object as a sum of its parts; recognizes categories of images.

Front 61

Brodmann's Areas 39

Back 61

Recognition of COLOR.
Situated in a junction of occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes.

Front 62

Brodmann's Areas 21 & 22

Back 62

Auditory association cortex
Recognition of sounds and speech.

Front 63

Brodmann's Areas 39 & 40

Back 63

Parieto-temporal-occipital association cortex.
Intercalation between high order somatic, visual and auditory cortexes. Responsible for correlation of multisensory perception.

Front 64

Limbic association region

Back 64

BA 11, 23, 24 = regulation of emotional state.
BA 28, 38 = memory processing.

Front 65

Prefrontal association cortex

Back 65

BA areas anterior to 6.
Responsible for producting abstract ideas, appropriate judgment, and persistence.

Prefrontal lobe syndrome: impairment of decision making, ability to plan, social judgment, loss os spontaneity of motor and mental activities.

Front 66

Wernicke's Area

Back 66

Includes BA 22 and 39.
Recognition of SPOKEN LANGUAGE. Only in left hemisphere.

Connected to Broca's Area by arcuate fasciculus.

Front 67

Broca's Area

Back 67

BA 44.
Responsible for SPEAKING. Only in left hemisphere.

Connected to Wernicke's Area by arcuate fasciculus.

Front 68

Describe the cortices corresponding to Wernicke's and Broca's Areas in the RIGHT hemisphere.

Back 68

Wernickes --> recognizes tone of voice

Broca's --> rudimentary speech capability and responsible for tone to the voice of the speaker.

Front 69

Wernicke's Aphasia & Broca's Aphasia

Back 69

Inability to understand spoken words.

Inability to speak. Similar to Conduction aphsia (lesion of arcuate fasciculus).

Front 70

What is Alexia?

Back 70

Inability to comprehend written language -- lesion in area 39 in left hemisphere.

(Remember: Wernicke's is 22 and 39)

Front 71

Where is the temporo-spatial workign memory and where is the auditory-based working memory?

Back 71

Temporo-spatial: prefrontal cortex.

Auditory-based: parietal cortex.

Front 72

Procedural memories processed where?

Back 72

Striatum (basal ganglia) and cerebellum.

Front 73

Emotional memories processed where?

Back 73

Amygdala

Front 74

Anterograde Amnesia

Back 74

New events are not transferred to long-term memory. Due to destruction of hippocampus.

Front 75

Retrograde amnesia

Back 75

Loss of memories acquired shortly before the damage. Due to destruction of hippocampus.

Front 76

Left hemisphere dominant for what?

Back 76

Language
mathematical abilities
logic
analytical thinking

The parietal association cortex mediates attention to the right part of the body only.

Front 77

Right hemisphere dominant for what?

Back 77

Visual-spatial skills
Intuition
nonverbal communication

The parietal association cortex mediates attention to both right and left parts of the body.

Front 78

So the substantia nigra suppresses the indirect route by inhibiting which neurons?

Back 78

By inhibiting the gaba/enk neurons.

Facilitates the direct route by exciting the gaba/sp neurons.

Front 79

Which parts of the basal ganglia path are EXCITATORY?

Back 79

Cerebral cortex --> putamen (glutamate)
Thalamus (VLo) --> motor cortex
Pars compacta D1 --> putamen (dopamine)
Subthalamic nucleus --> globus pallidus internal (glutamate)

Front 80

Direct route: suppress or cause movement?

Back 80

Excites movement

Front 81

Indirect route: suppress or cause movement?

Back 81

Suppresses movement.

Front 82

What is hemiballismus?

Back 82

Damage to the subthalamic nucleus
Wayyy to much movement; violent, involuntary movements of the limbs.

Globus pallidus internal isn't excited so the thalamus has no inhibition.