Nervous System

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bilaterally symmetrical

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anterior and prosterior end and a right and left side

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cephalization

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sense organs are concentrated at the anterior end

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brain

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a complex integrating center made up of clusters of ganglia

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ganglia

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groupings of neuronal cell bodies

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nuclei

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groupings of neuronal cell bodies within the brain

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tracts

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grouping of axons within the brain

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nerves

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parallel bundles of mylinated and unmylinated axons of afferent (from sensory organs to brain/integrating center) and efferent (from brain/integrating centers to effector organ) neurons enclosed in several layers of connective tissue

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endoneurium

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connective tissue around individual axons

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perineurium

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connective tissue around fasicles

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fasicles

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bundle of axons

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epineurium

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connective tissue around outside of nerve

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mixed nerves

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contain both efferent and afferent neurons

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vertebrate nervous system is unique because

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has hollow dorsal nerve cord

CNS

PNS

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cranial nerves

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-Vagus X is important
-13 pairs
-some afferent some efferent
-exit directly from brain case
-

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spinal nerves

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-emerge from spinal cord

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grey matter

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neuronal cell bodies

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white matter

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bundles of axons and myelin sheaths

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white matter is on the surface in the spinal cord and greymatter inside for the cerebral cortex it is

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opposite

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meninges

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layers of connective tissue that surround the brain and spinal cord

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cerebral spinal fluid

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fills the space within meninges and acts as a shock absorber

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blood brain barrier

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tight junction in brain capillaries prevent material from leaking out of the blood vessels into CNS

-brain has least leaky vessels

-since CO2 is a gas can diffuse quickly so brain responds quickly to CO2 levels

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brain central cavities that are filled with CSF are

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ventricles

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Hindbrain

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reflexes and involuntary movement

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midbrain

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coordination of sensory info
-relay station in mammals

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fore brain

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-regulation of body temp, reproduction, eating and emotion
-learning and memory in mammals
-integration of olfactory information with other senses

-consists of cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

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Pons

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located above the medulla

-pathway between the medulla and the cerebellum and the forebrain
-controls alertness and initiates sleep and dreaming

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cerebellum

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two hemispheres at back of brain

-motor coordination
-contain half of neurons in brain

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medulla oblongata

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-top of spinal cord

-breathing, heart rate, diameter of blood vessels and blood pressure

-may cross over

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midbrain + pons + medulla=

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brain stem

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cerebrum

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2 cerebral hemispheres connected by corpus callosum

left controls right
right controls left

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cortex

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integrates and interprets sensory information and initiates voluntary movements

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gyri

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folds

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sulci

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grooves

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hypothalamus

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located at the base of the forebrain
-maintains homeostasis
-interacts with autonomic nervous system
-regulates secretions of pituitary hormones

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limbic system

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influences emotions, motivation and memory

-includes hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, olfactory bulbs

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amygdala

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agression and fear responses

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hippocampus

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converts short term memory to long term memory

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olfactory bulbs

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sense of smell

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thalamus

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-large grouping of grey matter above the hypothalamus
-part of reticular formation
-recieves imput from limbic and all senses
-relays info to cortex, acts as a filter

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epithalamus

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located above the thalamus
-include hebenular nuclei and pineal complex

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habenular nuclei

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communicates with tagmentum of forebrain=important into homostasis, regulation of pH

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pineal complex

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sleep patterns

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afferent branch of PNS

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sensory

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efferent branch of PNS is

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autonomic and motor divisions

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autonomic division consists of

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sympathic (flight or fright, periods of stress)

parasympathic (day to day, periods of rest)

enteric (digestion)

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motor division

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skeletal muscles mainly but also smooth and cardiac

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homeostasis is maintained by balancing the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

what are the three features of this

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-duel innervation : most internal organs receive imput from both systems
-antagonistic action: one stimulates, one inhibits
-Basal tones : even under rest autonomic neurons produce APs

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heart has

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parasympathetic -ACH, Vagus nerve, slows heart rate

sympathetic- cardiac nerve, EPI, NE, increases heart rate and force of contraction (inc force= inc stroke volume)

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bronchioles of lungs

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para- constricts

sym- dilates

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bladder

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-para-release
-sym-retention of urine

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in parasympathic pregang releases ACH which binds to Nicotinic receptor on the post gang and releases ACH which binds to muscarinic receptors on the effector organ

what about sympathetic

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pregang releases ach which binds to nicotinic receptors on post gang which release NE which binds to adrenergic receptors on effector organ

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adrenal medulla

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is modified post ganglionic neuron
part of kidney
has on sympathetic innervation
chromaffin cells release epi

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reflex arcs

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do not involve the concious centers of the brain

-can involve as few as 2 neurons
-can have convergence to allow spatial summation
or divergence to amplify signal

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somatic pathway characteristics

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control only one type of effector, skeletal muscle
-monosynaptic, very long
-release ACH
-always excitatory

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habituation

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decrease in response due to repeated exposure
due to inactivation of calicum channels leading to a decrease in NT release

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acclimation

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longterm adaption

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sensitization

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-increase response to soft stimulus after strong stimulus exposure
-occurs because of inc in Ca2+ entery which inc NT release
-involves a secondary circuit

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secndary circcuit of sensitization

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release serotonin, bind to g coupled receptors, cascade of reactions, inactivation of K+ channels, inc AP duration, inc Ca2+ influx, Inc NT release

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CAM kII

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protien kinase that phosphos the AMPA receptor and increases its sensitivity to glutamate=amplify signal

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long term potentiation

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repetitive stimulation of hippocampal tissue leadst to increase in response of postsynaptic neuron