Nervous 3 Senses

Front 1

The general senses

Back 1

are those with receptors widely distributed throughout the body, including the skin, various organs and joints.

Front 2

The special senses

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have more specialized receptors and are confined to structures in the head, such as the eyes and ears.

Front 3

Sensory receptors

Back 3

Sensory receptors collect information from the environment and send impulses along sensory fibers to the brain.

Front 4

Five types of sensory receptors are

Back 4

chemoreceptors, pain receptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and photoreceptors.

Front 5

. Chemoreceptors

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. Chemoreceptors respond to changes in chemical concentrations

Front 6

Pain receptors

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respond to tissue damage.

Front 7

Thermoreceptors

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Thermoreceptors respond to temperature changes.

Front 8

Mechanoreceptors

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Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical forces.(changes that deform receptors)

Front 9

Proprioceptors

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sense changes in the tension of muscles and tendons.

Front 10

Baroreceptors

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Baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure.

Front 11

Stretch

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receptors respond to stretch.
sense degree of inflation inthe lungs

Front 12

Photoreceptors

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respond to light energy.

Front 13

Sensory receptors location

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Sensory receptors can be ends of neurons or other kinds of cells located close to them.

Front 14

Stimulation of sensory receptors causes

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local changes in their membrane potential, generating a graded electric current that reflects the intensity of stimulation.

Front 15

. If a receptor is a neuron and the change in membrane potential reaches threshold,

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. If a receptor is a neuron and the change in membrane potential reaches threshold, an action potential is generated.

Front 16

A sensation

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is a feeling that occurs when the brain interprets sensory impulses.

Front 17

Sensations depend on

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which region of the cerebral cortex receives the impulse.

Front 18

Projection

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Projection is a process in which the cerebral cortex projects a sensation back to its apparent source.

Front 19

Sensory adaptation

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Sensory adaptation is the ability to ignore unimportant stimuli.

Front 20

An example of sensory adaptation is

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An example of sensory adaptation is background noise in a room.

Front 21

General senses are

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those whose sensory receptors are associated with the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera.

Front 22

Three groups of somatic senses are

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exteroceptive senses, proprioceptive senses, and visceroceptive senses.

Front 23

Exteroceptive senses

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include senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Front 24

Proprioceptive senses

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. Proprioceptive senses include senses associated with changes in muscles and tendons and in body position.

Front 25

Visceroceptive senses

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Visceroceptive senses include senses associated with changes in viscera.(blood pressure strecthing blood vessels)

Front 26

Three kinds of touch and pressure receptors are

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free nerve endings, Meissner’s corpuscles, and Pacinian corpuscles.

Front 27

Free nerve endings L&F

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. Free nerve endings are located in epithelial tissues and are responsible for the sensation of itching.

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Meissner’s corpuscle L&F

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Meissner’s corpuscles are located in hairless portions of skin and are involved in fine touch, as in distinguishing between two points on the skin.(lips,fingertips

Front 29

Pacinian corpuscles L&F

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Pacinian corpuscles are located in deeper subcutaneous tissues of the hands, feet, penis, clitoris, urethra, breasts, and tendons and ligament, and are associated with heavier pressure, stretch, and vibrations.

Front 30

. Two types of temperature receptors

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. Two types of temperature receptors are warm and cold receptors

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Warm receptor

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Warm receptors respond to temperatures between 25oC and 45oC.

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Cold receptors

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Cold receptors respond to temperatures between 10oC and 20oC.

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activate pain receptors

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Temperatures above 45oC and below 10oC activate pain receptors

Front 34

Pain receptors( 4 things)

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a. Pain receptors consist of free nerve endings.
b. Pain receptors are distributed widely throughout the skin and internal tissues, except in the nervous tissue of the brain.
c. Pain receptors can be stimulated by damaged tissue.
d. Pain receptors adapt very little, if at all.

Front 35

Pain in visceral organs result from

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Pain in visceral organs result from stimulation of mechanoreceptors and from decreased blood flow accompanied by lower tissue oxygen levels and accumulation of pain-stimulating chemicals.

Front 36

Referred pain

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is a phenomenon is which visceral pain may feel as if it is coming from some part of the body other than the part being stimulated.

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example of referred pain

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e. During a heart attack, the cerebral cortex may incorrectly interpret the source of the impulses as coming from the left arm.

Front 38

. Two main types of pain fibers

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. Two main types of pain fibers are acute pain fibers and chronic pain fibers.

Front 39

Acute pain fibers

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are thin, myelinated nerve fibers and conduct impulses rapidly at velocities up to 30 meters per second.
c. Acute pain fibers are associated with the sensation of sharp pain.

Front 40

Chronic pain fibers

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are thin, unmyelinated nerve fibers that conduct impulses more slowly.
e. Impulses from chronic pain fibers cause dull, aching pain
sensations.

Front 41

Pain impulses that originate from tissues of the head reach the

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Pain impulses that originate from tissues of the head reach the brain on sensory fibers of fifth, seventh, ninth, and tenth cranial nerves.

Front 42

All other pain impulses nit from the head

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travel on sensory fibers of spinal nerves and they pass into the spinal cord by way of dorsal roots.
i. Upon reaching the spinal cord, pain impulses enter the gray matter of the posterior horn, where they are processed.

Front 43

Awareness of pain occurs when

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Awareness of pain occurs when pain impulses reach the level of the thalamus.

Front 44

The cerebral cortex

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The cerebral cortex judges the intensity of pair and locates its source.

Front 45

Enkephalins and serotonin

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Enkephalins and serotonin can suppress pain impulses.

Front 46

Endorphins

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are natural pain controlling substances in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus.

Front 47

. Proprioceptors

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are mechanoreceptors that send information to the spinal cord and brain concerning the lengths and tensions of skeletal muscles.

Front 48

. Two main kinds of stretch receptors are

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. Two main kinds of stretch receptors are muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs.

Front 49

Muscle spindles L& F

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Muscle spindles are located in skeletal muscles near their junctions with tendons and function to detect stretch.

Front 50

Golgi tendon organs L&F

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Golgi tendon organs are located in tendons close to their attachments to muscles and function to detect increased tension.

Front 51

The stretch reflex

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is an action that opposed the lengthening of a muscle and helps maintain the desired position of a limb in spite of gravitational or other forces tending to move it.

Front 52

Examples of special senses are

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sight, smell, hearing, and taste.

Front 53

Special senses are those whose sensory receptors

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are within sensory organs of the head.

Front 54

Olfactory receptors

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are used to sense smell and are chemoreceptors.

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taste is a combination of

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taste is a combination of smell and taste sensations.

Front 56

Olfactory organs contain

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the olfactory receptors.

Front 57

. Olfactory organs are located

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in the upper pars of the nasal cavity, the superior nasal conchae, and a portion of the nasal septum.

Front 58

The olfactory receptor cells are

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bipolar neurons surrounded by columnar epithelial cells.

Front 59

Smell impulses are generated when

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odorants enter the nasal cavity, dissolve in fluids, and bind to receptors proteins on cilia that are part of the cell membranes of the olfactory receptor cells.

Front 60

Once olfactory receptors are stimulated,

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nerve impulses travel along their axons to synapse with neurons in the olfactory bulbs.

Front 61

The olfactory bulbs function

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to analyze the sensory impulses.

Front 62

From olfactory bulbs, impulses travel to

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olfactory tracts.

Front 63

From olfactory tracts, impulses travel to

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portions of the limbic system and cerebral cortex.

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The limbic system functions

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to put an emotion with the smell information.

Front 65

The olfactory cortex L&F

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is located in the temporal lobes and interprets the smell sensations.

Front 66

The olfactory code

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The olfactory code is a particular combination used by the brain to determine the smell sensation.

Front 67

. The intensity of a smell drops because

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. The intensity of a smell drops about 50% within a second because olfactory receptors adapt quickly.

Front 68

Taste buds are

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Taste buds are special organs of taste

Front 69

Papillae of the tongue

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are tiny elevations.

Front 70

Taste cells are

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modified epithelial cells that function as receptors.

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A taste pore

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A taste pore is an opening in a taste bud.

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Taste hairs are

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tiny projections from the surface of taste cells.

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The mechanism of tasting explain

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The mechanism of tasting probably involves a combination of chemicals binding specific receptors on taste hair surfaces, altering membrane polarization, and thereby generating sensory impulses on nearby nerve fibers.

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The five primary taste sensations are

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sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

Front 75

. Spicy foods

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. Spicy foods activate pain receptors

Front 76

Responsiveness to a sweet stimulus

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peaks at the tip of the tongue.

Front 77

Responsiveness to a sour stimulus is greatest at

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the margins of the tongue.

Front 78

Receptors that are responsive to salt are

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widely distributed.

Front 79

Acids stimulate

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sour receptors.

Front 80

Sweet receptors are usually stimulated by

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carbohydrates.

Front 81

Salt receptors are stimulated

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by ionized inorganic salts.

Front 82

Bitter receptors are stimulated by

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a variety of chemicals.

Front 83

Taste receptors, like olfactory receptors, undergo

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adaptation.

Front 84

The three cranial nerves that carry taste sensations ar

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e the facial, glossopharyngeal, and the vagus nerves.

Front 85

Cranial nerves conduct taste sensations to the (3locations in order)

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Cranial nerves conduct taste sensations to the medulla oblongata.
c. From the medulla oblongata, taste sensations go to the thalamus and the gustatory cortex.
d. The gustatory cortex is located in the parietal lobes.

Front 86

The three parts of the ear are

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external, middle, and inner.

Front 87

The ear also provides the sense of

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equilibrium.

Front 88

The auricle of the ear L& F

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The auricle of the ear is an outer, funnel-like structure and functions to collect sounds waves.

Front 89

The external auditory meatus

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The external auditory meatus is a canal that extends from the auricle to the tympanic membrane and functions to deliver sounds waves to the tympanic membrane.

Front 90

. Ceruminous glands

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. Ceruminous glands line the external auditory meatus and secretes cerumen.

Front 91

The tympanic membrane

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is semitransparent membrane and moves back and forth in response to sound waves.

Front 92

The middle ear

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is an air filled space in the temporal bone.

Front 93

The middle ear contains three

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auditory ossicles.

Front 94

The three auditory ossicles

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are the malleus, incus, and stapes.

Front 95

Vibration of the stapes

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moves a fluid within the inner ear.

Front 96

Vibrations in the inner ear

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stimulate hearing receptors.

Front 97

. The tympanic reflex

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is a reflex that causes the ear ossicles to become more rigid.

Front 98

The tympanic reflex reduces

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The tympanic reflex reduces the effectiveness in transmitting vibrations to the inner ear.

Front 99

The auditory tube

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connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear cavity.

Front 100

. The inner ear is

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. The inner ear is a complex system of intercommunicating chambers and tubes.

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The osseous labyrinth

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is a bony canal in the temporal bone.

Front 102

The membranous labyrinth

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The membranous labyrinth is a tube that lies within the osseous labyrinth and has a similar shape.

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The three parts of the labyrinths are the

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The three parts of the labyrinths are the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule.

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The cochlea functions in

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hearing.

Front 105

. The semicircular canals provide

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a sense of equilibrium

Front 106

The organ of Corti

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is located on the upper surface of the basilar membranes and stretches from the apex to the base of the cochlea. It contains hearing receptor cells.

Front 107

The tectorial membrane

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is a membrane above the hearing receptor cells and is in contact with the hair of the receptor cells.

Front 108

Different frequencies of vibration move

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different parts of the basilar membrane.

Front 109

. A particular sound frequency causes

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the hairs of a specific group of receptors cells to bend against the tectorial membrane.

Front 110

Auditory Nerve Pathway( 3 things in order

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The cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve carries hearing impulses to the medulla oblongata.
b. The medulla oblongata conveys the hearing impulses through the midbrain to the thalamus.
c. From the thalamus, hearing impulses go to the temporal lobes where they are interpreted.

Front 111

The organs of static equilibrium sense

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sense the position of the head, maintaining stability and posture when the head and body are still.

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organs of static equilibrium are located

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The organs of static equilibrium are located within the vestibule.

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. The two expanded chambers within the vestibule

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. The two expanded chambers within the vestibule are the utricle and saccule.

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The macula is

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a patch of hair cells and supporting cells of the utricle and saccule.

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When the head is upright

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When the head is upright, the hairs of the macula in the utricle project vertically and those of the saccule project horizontally.

Front 116

. The otolithic membrane is a

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. The otolithic membrane is a gelatinous membrane

Front 117

Gravity stimulates

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Gravity stimulates hair cells to respond.

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When hair cells bend,

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they signal their associated nerve fibers

Front 119

The nerve impulse generated by the bending of the hair cells travels

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The nerve impulse generated by the bending of the hair cells travels to the brain by means of the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve.

Front 120

The brain responds to equilibrium information by

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sending motor impulses to skeletal muscles.

Front 121

The maculae also participate in the sense of

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dynamic equilibrium.

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The three bony semicircular canals lie at

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right angles to each other and occupy three different planes in space.

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The ampulla

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is a swelling of the membranous labyrinth of a semicircular canal that communicates with the utricle of the vestibule.

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The crista ampullaris

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is a sensory organ composed of hair cells and supporting cells.

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The cupula is

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gelatinous mass that covers hair cells of the crista ampullaris.

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Parts of the cerebellum are particularly important in interpreting impulses from the

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semicircular canals.

Front 127

Visual accessory organs assist

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Visual accessory organs assist the visual receptors.

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. Examples of visual accessory organs

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are eyelids, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.

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Each eyelid is composed of

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skin, muscle, connective tissue, and conjunctiva.

Front 130

The orbiculais oculi muscle

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functions to close the eyelids

Front 131

The levator palpebrae muscle

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functions to raise the upper eyelids.

Front 132

Tarsal glands are

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modified sebaceous glands in eyelids

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Conjunctiva

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Conjunctiva is a mucous membrane that lines the inner surfaces of the eyelids and covers a portion of the surface of the eyeball and functions to keep the surface of the eyeball moist.

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The lacrimal apparatus

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The lacrimal apparatus consists of the lacrimal gland and a series of ducts and functions to secrete tears and to drain them into the nasal cavity.

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A lacrimal sac

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is a structure, which collects tears from superior and inferior canaliculi.

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. A lacrimal duct

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is a duct, which collects tears from the lacrimal sac and empties tears into the nasal cavity.

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Tears contain

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Tears contain water and en enzyme called lysozyme.

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The extrinsic muscles of the eye

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function to move the eyeball.

Front 139

. The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are

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. The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior oblique, and inferior oblique.

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The superior rectus muscle

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moves the eye upward and medially.

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The inferior rectus muscle

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The inferior rectus muscle moves the eye downward and medially.

Front 142

The medial rectus muscle

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The medial rectus muscle moves the eye medially.

Front 143

. The lateral rectus muscle

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. The lateral rectus muscle moves the eye laterally.

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. The superior oblique muscle

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moves the eye downward and laterally.

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. The inferior oblique muscle

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. The inferior oblique muscle moves the eye upward and laterally.

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The three layers of the eyeball are

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The three layers of the eyeball are outer fibrous, middle vascular, and inner nervous.

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The spaces within the eye

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The spaces within the eye are filled with fluids that support its wall and internal structures and help maintain its shape.

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. The two parts of the outer tunic

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. The two parts of the outer tunic are the cornea and sclera.

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The cornea

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The cornea is transparent and functions to allow light to enter the eye.

Front 150

The sclera

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The sclera is white and opaque and functions to protect internal structures of the eyeball.

Front 151

In the back of the eye, the optic nerve

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In the back of the eye, the optic nerve pierces the sclera.

Front 152

The middle tunic of the eye include

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s choroid coat, ciliary body, and iris.

Front 153

The choroid coat

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The choroid coat is the posterior five-sixth of the middle layer and its functions include to supply nutrients to surrounding tissues and to absorb excess light.

Front 154

. The ciliary body

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. The ciliary body is the thickest part of the middle layer and forms a ring around the front of the eye and its functions include holding and moving the lens.

Front 155

Ciliary processes

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Ciliary processes are radiating folds within the ciliary body.

Front 156

Suspensory ligaments

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Suspensory ligaments extend from the ciliary processes and hold the lens in position.

Front 157

. The lens is made up of

Back 157

. The lens is made up of specialized epithelial cells and lens fibers.

Front 158

When ciliary muscles relax

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When ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligaments become tight and the lens becomes thinner.

Front 159

When ciliary muscles contract,

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. When ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligaments become loose and the lens becomes thicker.

Front 160

The iris

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The iris is a thin diaphragm and functions to control the amount of light that enters the eye.

Front 161

The anterior cavity of the eye

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The anterior cavity of the eye is the portion of the eye in front of the lens.

Front 162

The anterior chamber of the eye

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The anterior chamber of the eye is the portion of the eye in front of the iris.

Front 163

The posterior chamber of the eye

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The posterior chamber of the eye is the portion of the eye between the iris and lens.

Front 164

Aqueous humor

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Aqueous humor is located in the anterior cavity of the eye and functions to provide nutrients to surrounding tissues.

Front 165

The pupil

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The pupil is a hole in an iris.

Front 166

. The size of the pupil changes in response to

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light intensity

Front 167

The inner tunic of the eye consists of the

Back 167

retina which contains the visual receptor cells.

Front 168

The five major groups of retinal neurons

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The five major groups of retinal neurons are receptor cells, bipolar neuron, ganglion cells, horizontal cells and amacrine cells.

Front 169

Receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells provide

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Receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells provide a direct pathway for impulses triggered in the receptors to the optic nerve and brain.

Front 170

The horizontal cells and amacrine cells function to

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modify the impulses transmitted on the fibers of the direct pathway.

Front 171

The optic disc

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The optic disc is the area where nerve fibers from the retina exit the eye.

Front 172

Vitreous humor

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is located in the posterior cavity and functions to support the internal structures of the eye and helps maintain its shape.

Front 173

The posterior cavity of the eye

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The posterior cavity of the eye is the portion of the eye behind the lens.

Front 174

. Light waves entering the eye must pass through

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. Light waves entering the eye must pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and several layer of the retina before they reach the photoreceptors.

Front 175

Light refraction

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Light refraction is the bending of light and occurs when light moves at an oblique angle from one medium to another medium of a different density.

Front 176

. A convex surface causes light waves to

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. A convex surface causes light waves to converge

Front 177

A concave surface causes light waves to

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A concave surface causes light waves to diverge.

Front 178

Light is refracted by

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Light is refracted by cornea and lens as it enters the eye.

Front 179

If the shape of the eye is normal, light wave are

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If the shape of the eye is normal, light wave are focused sharply onto the retina.

Front 180

The image focused on the retina is

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The image focused on the retina is upside down and reversed from left to right.

Front 181

Divergent light waves focus

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behind the retina unless something increases the refracting power of the eye.

Front 182

Accommodation

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Accommodation accomplishes the increase in refracting power by thickening of the lens.

Front 183

Two kinds of photoreceptor cells are

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Two kinds of photoreceptor cells are rods and cones.

Front 184

Rods and cones are found in

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Rods and cones are found in a deep layer of the retina.

Front 185

. Rods and cones are stimulated when

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. Rods and cones are stimulated when light reaches them.

Front 186

Rods ( threes things)

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Rods are more sensitive to light than cones.
e. Rods provide vision in dim light.
f. Rods produce colorless vision,

Front 187

cones (two things)

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cones detect colors.
g. Cones provide sharp images, whereas rods produce broad outlines of objects.

Front 188

The area of sharpest vision is

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The area of sharpest vision is the fovea centralis

Front 189

The concentration of cones decreases in areas farther away from the

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The concentration of cones decreases in areas farther away from the macula lutea.

Front 190

Rhodopsin

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Rhodopsin is the light sensitive pigment of rods.
b. Rhodopsin is located in membranous discs of rods.

Front 191

In the presence of light, rhodospin breaks down into

Back 191

molecules of opsin and retinal.

Front 192

In bright light cones detect

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In bright light cones detect colors.

Front 193

Dark adapted eyes are

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Dark adapted eyes are those whose rods have increased amounts of available rhodospin.

Front 194

Light adapted eyes

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Light adapted eyes are very sensitive to light and have decreased amounts of rhodopsin available.

Front 195

Three pigments found on cones are

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Three pigments found on cones are erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe.

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Erythrolabe is most sensitive to

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Erythrolabe is most sensitive to red light waves.

Front 197

Chlorolabe is most sensitive to

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Chlorolabe is most sensitive to green light waves.

Front 198

Cyanolabe is most sensitive to

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blue light

Front 199

Stereoscopic vision

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Stereoscopic vision perceives distance, depth, height, and width of objects.

Front 200

Stereoscopic vision depends on

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Stereoscopic vision depends on vision with two eyes.

Front 201

A person with one eye is less able to

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A person with one eye is less able to judge distance and depth accurately.

Front 202

Visual Nerve Pathways (5 things in order)

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Visual Nerve Pathways
a. Axons of ganglionic cell leave eye through the optic nerve.
b. The optic chiasm is where the optic nerves cross.
c. Impulses leave the optic chiasm through optic tracts and most are carried to the thalamus.
d. From the thalamus, visual impulses travel to the visual cortex.
e. Visual impulses that do not go to the thalamus go to the midbrain and are important in visual reflexes.

Front 203

Age-related hearing loss may be due to

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decades of cumulative damage to the sensitive hair cells of the organ of Corti.

Front 204

. Presbycusis

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. Presbycusis is hearing loss due to degeneration of auditory pathways.

Front 205

Tinnitus is

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Tinnitus is an abnormal ringing in the ear.

Front 206

Vision may decline with age because of

Back 206

Vision may decline with age because of dry eyes, too few tears, crystal-like deposits in the vitreous humors, or cataracts in lens.

Front 207

Presbyopia

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Presbyopia is the inability to read small print up close

Front 208

Glaucoma

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Glaucoma is increased pressure in the eye due to accumulation of aqueous humor.

Front 209

Cataracts

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Cataracts are eye disorders in which the lenses become clouded and somewhat opaque.

Front 210

Retinal detachment is

Back 210

Retinal detachment is a condition in which the retina becomes detached from the posterior surface of the middle layer of the eye.