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442 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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accidental
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A musical symbol (sharp, flat, natural, double sharp, or double flat) that appears before a note to raise or lower its pitch chromatically.
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clef
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A symbol that appears on the far left of every staff to designate which line or space represents which pitch (in which octave).
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alto clef
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A C-clef positioned on a staff so that the middle line indicates middle C (C4); typically read by violas.
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bass clef
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On a staff, the bass clef (also known as the F-clef ) rests on the line that represents F3; its two dots surround the F3 line; typically read by bassons, cellos, basses, and piano left hand.
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C-clef
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A movable clef that may be placed on a staff to identify any one of the five lines as middle C (C4).
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tenor clef
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A C-clef positioned on a staff so that the fourth line from the bottom indicates middle C (C4); typically read by bassoons, cellos, and tenor trombones in their higher registers.
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treble clef
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On a staff, the treble clef (also known as G-clef ) denotes the line for G4, by means of the end of its curving line; typically read by flutes, clarinets, oboes, horns, sopranos, altos, and piano right hand.
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double flat
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An accidental that lowers a pitch two half steps (or one whole step) below its letter name.
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double sharp
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An accidental (x) that raises a pitch two half steps (or one whole step) above its letter name.
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dynamics
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The degree of loudness or softness in playing. Common terms (from soft to loud) are pianissimo, piano, mezzo piano, mezzo forte, forte, and fortissimo.
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enharmonic
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Different letter names for the same pitch or pitch class (e.g., E and D#).
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flat
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An accidental that lowers a pitch by one half step.
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grand staff
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Two staves, one in the treble clef and one in the bass clef, connected by a curly brace; typically found in piano music.
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half step
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The musical space between a pitch and its next-closest pitch on the keyboard.
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interval
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The musical space between two pitches or pitch classes.
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ledger line
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Extra lines drawn through the stems and/or note heads to designate a pitch when the notation extends above or below a staff.
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octave
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The distance of eight musical steps.
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octave equivalence
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The concept that two pitches an octave apart are functionally equivalent.
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pitch
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A tone sounding in a particular octave.
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pitch class
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Notes an octave (or several octaves) apart that share the same name (e.g., F3, F5, and F2 all belong to pc F). Pitch-class names assume octave and enharmonic equivalence.
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sharp
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An accidental (#) that raises a pitch a half step.
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staff
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The five parallel lines on which we write music.
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whole step
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The combination of two adjacent half steps.
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anacrusis
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Occurs when a melody starts just before the first downbeat in a meter; also called an upbeat, or pick-up.
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bar line
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A vertical line that indicates the end of a measure.
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beat
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The primary pulse in musical meter.
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compound meter
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Any meter in which the beat divides into threes and subdivides into sixes. The top number of the meter signature will be 6, 9, or 12 (e.g., 9/4 or 6/8).
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cut time
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A Near Eastern term that refers to a mound site formed through successive human occupation over a very long timespan.
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dot
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Rhythmic notation that adds to a note half again its own value (e.g., a dotted half equals a half note plus a quarter note).
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downbeat
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Beat 1 of a metrical pattern.
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eighth note
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A stemmed black note head with one flag. In duple beat divisions, two eighth notes divide a quarter-note beat; in triple beat divisions, three eighth notes divide a dotted-quarter-note beat.
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half note
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A stemmed white note head; its duration is equivalent to two quarter notes.
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measure
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A unit of grouped beats; generally, a measure begins and ends with notated bar lines.
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meter
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The grouping and divisions of beats in regular, recurring patterns.
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duple meter
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Meter in which beats group into units of two (e.g., 2/4, 2/2, or 6/8).
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quadruple meter
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Meter in which beats group into units of four (e.g., 4/4 or 12/8 ).
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triple meter
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Meter in which beats group into units of three (e.g., 3/2 or 9/8).
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meter signature
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Located at the beginning of the first line of a musical score, after the clef and key signature, the meter signature indicates the beat unit and grouping of beats in the piece or movement; also called a time signature.
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quarter note
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A stemmed black note head, equivalent in duration to two eighth notes.
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rest
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A duration of silence.
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rhythm
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The patterns made by the durations of pitch and silence (notes and rests) in a piece.
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simple meter
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Meter in which the beat divides into twos and subdivides into fours. The top number of the meter signature will be 2, 3, or 4 (e.g., 4/8 or 3/2).
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sixteenth note
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A stemmed black note head with two flags. In duple beat divisions, two sixteenths divide an eighth-note beat; in triple beat divisions, three sixteenths divide a dotted-eighth-note beat.
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slur
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An arc that connects two or more different pitches. Slurs affect articulation but not duration.
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syncopation
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Off-beat rhythmic accents created by dots, ties, rests, dynamic markings, or accent marks.
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tempo
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How fast or slow music is played. Examples of tempo markings include adagio (slow), andante (medium speed), and allegro (fast).
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tie
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A small arc connecting the note heads of two (or more) identical pitches, adding the durations of the notes together.
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time signature
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Another term for meter signature.
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upbeat
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Occurs when a melody starts just before the first strong beat in a meter; named for the upward lift of the conductor's hand. Another word for anacrusis.
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whole note
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A stemless white note head; equal in duration to two half notes.
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chromatic
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Chromatic music includes pitches from outside the diatonic collection. The chromatic collection consists of all twelve pitch classes.
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chromatic half step
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A semitone spelling in which both pitches have the same letter name (e.g., D and D#).
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circle of fifths
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A circular diagram showing the relationships between keys when sharps or flats are added to the key signature. The sharp keys appear around the right side of the circle, with each key a fifth higher. The flat keys appear around the left side of the circle, with each key a fifth lower.
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collection
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A group of unordered pitches or pitch classes that serve as a source of musical materials for a work or a section of a work; a large set.
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diatonic
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(1) The collection of seven pitch classes that, in some rotation, conforms to the pattern of the whole and half steps of the major scale (a subset of the chromatic collection). (2) Made up of pitches belonging to a given diatonic collection.
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diatonic half step
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A semitone spelled with different letter names for the two pitches (e.g., D and E).
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dominant
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(1) Scale-degree 5. (2) The triad built on 5.
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key signature
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Located at the beginning of each line of a musical score after the clef, a key signature shows which pitches are to be sharped or flatted consistently throughout the piece or movement. Helps determine the key of the piece.
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leading tone
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Scale-degree 7 of the major scale and harmonic or ascending-melodic minor scale; a half step below the tonic.
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major pentatonic
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A five-note subset of the diatonic collection that features scale-degrees 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 (do, re, mi, sol, la).
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mediant
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(1) Scale-degree 3. (2) The triad built on 3.
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scale
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A collection of pitch classes arranged in a particular order of whole and half steps.
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major scale
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An ordered collection of pitches arranged according to the following pattern of whole and half steps: W-W-H-W-W-W-H.
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scale degree
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A name for each pitch class of the scale, showing its relationship to the tonic pitch (for which the key is named). Scale-degree names may be numbers (1, 2, 3), words (tonic, supertonic, mediant), or solfege syllables (do, re, mi).
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Aeolian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic collection starting and ending on A; the same collection as the natural minor scale.
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Dorian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the white-key diatonic collection starting and ending on D. Equivalent to a natural minor scale with scale-degree 6 raised by a half step.
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harmonic minor
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The natural minor scale with raised scale-degree 7.
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Ionian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on C; the same collection as the major scale.
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Locriane
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on B. Sounds like a natural minor scale with scaledegrees 2 and 5 lowered by one half step.
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Lydian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on F. Equivalent to a major scale with scale-degree 4 raised by one half step.
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melodic minor
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The natural minor scale that includes the raised 6 and 7 as it ascends, but reverts to the natural minor form of 6 and 7 as it descends.
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minor pentatonic
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A five-note subset of the diatonic collection that features the minor-key scale degrees 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 (do, me, fa, sol, te).
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Mixolydian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on G. Equivalent to a major scale with scale-degree 7 lowered by one half step.
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modal scale degree
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The scale degrees that differ between major and natural minor scales: 3, 6, and 7.
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mode
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(1) Rotations of the major (or natural minor) scale (e.g., the Dorian mode is a rotation of the C Major scale beginning and ending on D). (2) Term used to distinguish between major and minor keys (e.g., a piece in "the minor mode").
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natural minor
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The major scale with lowered 3, 6, and 7, arranged according to the pattern of whole and half steps W-H-W-W-H-W-W. Natural minor shares the same key signature as the relative major key.
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parallel minor
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The minor key that shares the same tonic as a given major key. The parallel minor lowers 3, 6, and 7 of the major key.
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Phrygian
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on E. Equivalent to a natural minor scale with scale-degree 2 lowered by a half step.
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raised submediant
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Raised scale-degree 6 in melodic minor.
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relative major
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The major key that shares the same key signature as a given minor key. The relative major is made from the same pitch-class collection as its relative minor, but begins on scale-degree 3 of the minor key.
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relative minor
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The minor key that shares the same key signature as a given major key. The relative minor is made from the same pitch-class collection as its relative major, but begins on scale-degree 6 of the major key.
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subtonic
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(1) Scale-degree 7 of the natural minor scale, so called because it is a whole step below tonic. (2) The triad built on 7 of natural minor.
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compound duple
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Any meter with two beats in a measure, with each beat divided into three (e.g., 6/8 or 6/4).
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compound triple
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Any meter with three beats in a measure, with each beat divided into three (e.g., 9/8 or 9/4).
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compound quadruple
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Any meter with four beats in a measure, with each beat divided into three (e.g., 12/8 or 12/4).
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duplet
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In compound meters, a division of the beat into two equal parts (borrowed from simple meters) instead of the expected three parts.
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hemiola
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A special type of syncopation in compound meters, in which the normal three-part division of the beat is temporarily regrouped (over two beats) into twos. Also possible in simple-triple meters, using ties across the bar lines.
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quadruplet
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In compound time, a subdivision group borrowed from simple time.
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metrical accent
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The pattern of strong and weak beats based on the "weight" of the downbeat and the "lift" of the upbeat.
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triplet
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In simple meters, a division group borrowed from compound meters.
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upbeat
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Occurs when a melody starts just before the first strong beat in a meter; named for the upward lift of the conductor's hand. Another word for anacrusis.
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augmented interval
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An interval one half step larger than a major or perfect interval.
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compound interval
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An interval larger than an octave.
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consonance
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The intervals of a third and sixth.
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diminished interval
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An interval one half step smaller than a minor or perfect interval.
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generic pitch interval
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The distance between two pitches as measured by the number of steps between their letter names (e.g., C up to E is a third, D up to C is a seventh).
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imperfect consonance
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The intervals of a third and sixth.
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interval class
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All pitch intervals that can be made from one pair of pitch classes (or transpositions of these pitch classes by the same distance) belong to a single interval class (e.g., M3, m6, or M10). Also called unordered pitch-class interval.
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inversionally interval
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Two intervals that, when combined, span an octave (e.g., E3 - G#3, a major third, plus G#3-E4, a minor sixth). When inverted, major intervals become minor (and vice versa), diminished become augmented (and vice versa), and perfect stay perfect. The generic interval numbers of inversionally related intervals sum to 9 (third and sixth, second and seventh, etc.).
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perfect consonance
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The intervals of a unison, fourth, fifth, and octave. The harmonic interval of a fourth is treated as a dissonance in common practice style.
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pitch interval
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The musical space between two pitches, described either with tonal labels (e.g., minor second, augmented sixth, perfect fifth) or by the number of half steps from one pitch to the other. Unordered pitch intervals measure distance; ordered pitch intervals measure distance and direction (shown by preceding the interval number with a + or -).
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tritone
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An interval made up of three whole tones or six semitones: an augmented fourth or diminished part below it; considered poor voice-leading in common-practice style.
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unison
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The interval size 1, or the distance from a pitch to itself; interval 0 if measured in semitones.
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Alberti bass
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A common Classical-period accompaniment formed by arpeggiating triads in repeated patterns, such as root-fifth-third-fifth.
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augmented triad
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A triad with major thirds between the root and third and between the third and fifth. The interval between the root and fifth is an augmented fifth.
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chord
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A group of pitches sounded together. In common-practice harmony, chords are generally built in thirds.
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chord members
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The pitches that make up a chord. In tonal music, each chord member is described by the interval it forms with the lowest (or bass) pitch of the chord.
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diminished seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a diminished triad and a diminished seventh. Sometimes called a fully diminished seventh chord to distinguish it from the half-diminished seventh chord.
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diminished triad
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A triad with minor thirds between the root and third and between the third and fifth. The interval between the root and fifth is a diminished fifth.
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dominant seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a major triad and a minor seventh. Occurs diatonically on 5.
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fifth
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(1) The distance spanned by five consecutive letter names. (2) The pitch in a triad that is five scale steps above the root.
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first inversion
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A triad or seventh chord voiced so that the chordal third is in the bass.
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fully diminished 7th chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a diminished triad and a diminished seventh. Because its thirds are all minor, it has no audible root; it often appears in enharmonic spellings that indicate different chord members as the root. May be used as a means to modulate to distantly related keys.
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half-diminished seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a diminished triad and a minor seventh.
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major seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a major triad and a major seventh.
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minor seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a minor triad and a minor seventh.
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root
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The lowest pitch of a triad or seventh chord when the chord is spelled in thirds.
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root position
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A chord voiced so that the root is in the bass.
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second inversion
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A triad or seventh chord voiced so that the chordal fifth is in the bass.
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third inversion
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A seventh chord voiced so that the chordal seventh is in the bass.
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triad
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A chord made from two stacked thirds.
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major triad
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A triad with a major third between the root and third and a minor third between the third and fifth. The interval between the root and fifth is a perfect fifth. Corresponds to scale-degrees 1, 3, and 5 of a major scale.
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minor triad
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A triad with a minor third between the root and third and a major third between the third and fifth. The interval between the root and fifth is a perfect fifth. Corresponds to scale-degrees 1, 3, and 5 of a minor scale.
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triad quality
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The description of a triad according to the quality of its stacked thirds and fifth: major, minor, diminished, or augmented.
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1 1
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Counterpoint written so that each note in one voice is paired with a single note in the other voice, using only consonant intervals. Another name for first-species counterpoint.
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2 1
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Counterpoint written so that one voice has two notes for every single note in the other voice. Permits consonances and passing tones, according to strict rules of voice-leading; in eighteenth-century style, also allows neighbor tones. Another name for second-species counterpoint.
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chordal skip
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A melodic embellishment made by skipping from one chord member to another.
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conjunct
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Melodic motion by step.
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consonant skip
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Another term for chordal skip.
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contrary motion
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Contrapuntal, or voice-leading, motion in which two voices move in opposite directions.
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counterpoint
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A musical texture that sets two or more lines of music together so that the independent lines together create acceptable harmony; or harmonies set one after another so that the individual voices make good, independent melodic lines.
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disjunct
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Melodic motion by skip or leap.
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first species
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Counterpoint written so that each note in one voice is paired with a single note in the other voice, using only consonant intervals. Also called 1:1 counterpoint.
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leap
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A melodic interval larger than a fourth (larger than a chordal skip).
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neighbor tone
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An embellishment that decorates a melody pitch by moving to a pitch a step above or below it, then returning to the original pitch. Neighbor tones are approached and left by step, in opposite directions.
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note-to-note
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Another name for first species, or 1:1, counterpoint.
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oblique motion
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Contrapuntal, or voice-leading, motion in which one part repeats the same pitch while the other moves by leap, skip, or step.
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parallel motion
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Contrapuntal, or voice-leading, motion in which both parts move in the same direction by the same generic interval.
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passing tone
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A melodic embellishment that fills in the space between chord members by stepwise motion. It is approached by step and left by step in the same direction.
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second species
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Counterpoint written so that one voice has two notes for every single note in the other voice. Permits consonances and passing tones, according to specific rules of voice-leading; eighteenth-century style also allows neighbor tones. Another name for 2:1 counterpoint.
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similar motion
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Contrapuntal, or voice-leading, motion in which both parts move in the same direction, but not by the same generic interval.
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skip
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A melodic interval of a third or fourth.
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step
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The melodic interval of a half or whole step.
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3:1 (second species, Fux; third species, eighteenth-century practice)
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Counterpoint written so that one voice has three notes for every single note in the other voice. Considered a type of second species according to Fux, but in eighteenth-century practice it is more closely related to third-species counterpoint in its use of dissonance.
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4:1 (third species)
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Counterpoint written so that one voice has four notes for every single note in the other voice; permits consonances, passing tones, and neighboring tones, according to strict rules of voice-leading. Another name for third-species counterpoint.
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chromatic neighbor
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A nondiatonic half-step neighbor that embellishes a chord tone.
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chromatic passing tone
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A passing tone that divides a diatonic whole step into two half steps.
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double neighbor
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The combination of successive upper and lower neighbors (in either order) around the same pitch.
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fifth species
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Counterpoint that combines the patterns Counterpoint that combines the patterns free composition.
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fourth species
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A variant of second-species counterpoint in which one voice is rhythmically displaced by ties across the bar. Characterized by its use of suspensions.
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imitation
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The contrapuntal "echoing" of a voice in another part.
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incomplete neighbor
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A neighbor tone minus either (1) the initial motion from the main pitch to the neighbor, or (2) the returning motion of the neighbor to the main pitch.
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suspension
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A rhythmic embellishment where a consonance is held over to the next beat, creating a dissonance with the new harmony. The dissonance is resolved downward by step, creating another consonant interval. Suspensions are designated by intervals above the bass; the most common are 7-6, 4-3, and 9-8.
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alto
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The second-highest voice in four-part SATB writing, usually directly below the soprano.
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bass
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The lowest voice in four-part (SATB) writing. The bass pitch does not always represent the root of a chord.
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open score
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A score with a staff for every part, unlike a piano score; for example, an SATB choral score on four staves.
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SATB
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An abbreviation for the four main voice ranges: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Also indicates a particular musical style or texture: chorale style.
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soprano
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The highest voice in four-part (SATB) writing.
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spacing
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The arrangement of adjacent parts in fourpart writing, in which vocal range and the intervals between voices are considered.
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tenor
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The second-lowest voice in four-part (SATB) writing. Usually directly above the bass.
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vocal range
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The range of pitches (high and low) that may be sung comfortably by singers of a particular voice type (e.g., alto or tenor).
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voice crossing
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In four-part writing, one voice written higher than the part above it or lower than the the chord as "voice-leading" (VL) or as a passing or neighboring chord.
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C (concert-pitch) score
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A nontransposed score that shows all the parts in the concert key-i.e., all the pitches in the score are the pitches that the instruments sound. Also known as concert-pitch score.
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C instruments
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An instrument whose sounding pitch is the same as the notated pitch. Common C instruments include the piano, flute, oboe, bassoon, trombone, tuba, harp, and most of the string family.
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concert pitch
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The sounding pitch of an instrument. For transposing instruments, this differs from notated pitch.
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doubling
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In four-part writing, a triad pitch represented in two different voices.
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orchestration
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Music set or composed for a large ensemble.
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short score
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A score that shows several parts combined on each staff.
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transposed score
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A score that shows the pitches as notated in the performers' parts (which may be transposed for certain instruments), rather than the sounding pitches.
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transposing instruments
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An instrument (e.g., clarinet, saxophone, or horn) whose notated pitches are not the same as the pitches that sound when played.
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basic phrase
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A conclusive phrase that consists of an opening tonic area (T), an optional predominant area (PD), a dominant area (D), and tonic closure (T, a cadence on I). Written in contextual analysis as T-PD-D-T, beneath Roman numerals (vertical analysis).
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cadence
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The end of a phrase, where harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic features articulate a complete musical thought.
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conclusive cadence:
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A cadence that makes a phrase sound finished and complete. Generally the harmonic progression is V-I, with both soprano and bass ending on scale-degree 1.
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dominant area
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One of the harmonic areas in a basic phrase. In a conclusive phrase, the dominant area precedes the final tonic close.
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half cadence
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An inconclusive cadence on the dominant.
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harmonic rhythm
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The rate at which harmonies change in a piece (e.g., one chord per measure or one chord per beat).
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imperfect authentic cadence
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An authentic cadence weakened by (1) placing the I or V harmony in inversion, or (2) ending the soprano on a scale degree other than 1.
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inconclusive cadence
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A cadence that makes a phrase sound incomplete, as though the music needs to continue further. Generally, either the soprano or the bass ends on a scale degree other than 1.
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perfect authentic cadence
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A strong conclusive cadence in which a root-position V(7) progresses to a root-position I, and the soprano moves from scale-degree 2 or 7 to 1.
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resolution
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The way a harmony or scale step progresses to the next harmony or pitch. The term usually refers to the manner in which a dissonant interval moves to a consonant one.
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tendency tone
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A chord member or scale degree whose dissonant relation to the surrounding tones requires a particular resolution in common practice style (i.e., chordal sevenths resolve down, and leading tones resolve up).
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tonic area
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Usually the opening and closing area in a basic phrase (T-PD-D-T).
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anticipation
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An embellishing tone whose pitch of resolution arrives "early." An anticipation is unaccented, and almost always a dissonance. It does not resolve by step-rather, it is repeated as a consonance on the next beat, where it belongs.
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compound melody
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A melody created by the interaction of two or three voices, usually separated by register. Often features large leaps.
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double neighbor
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The combination of successive upper and lower neighbors (in either order) around the same pitch.
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double passing tone
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Passing tones that occur simultaneously in two or more voices, usually creating parallel thirds or sixths.
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incomplete neighbor
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A neighbor tone minus either (1) the initial motion from the main pitch to the neighbor, or (2) the returning motion of the neighbor to the main pitch.
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neighbor tone
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An embellishment that decorates a melody pitch by moving to a pitch a step above or below it, then returning to the original pitch. Neighbor tones are approached and left by step, in opposite directions.
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pedal point
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A note held for several measures while harmonies change above it. Chords above a pedal point do not participate in the harmonic frame work.
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retardation
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A rhythmic embellishment where a consonance is held over to the next beat, creating a dissonance with the new harmony. The dissonance is resolved upward by step, creating another consonant interval.
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suspension
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A rhythmic embellishment where a consonance is held over to the next beat, creating a dissonance with the new harmony. The dissonance is resolved downward by step, creating another consonant interval. Suspensions are designated by intervals above the bass; the most common are 7-6, 4-3, and 9-8.
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suspension chain
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A combined succession of suspensions, sometimes of a single type (e.g., 4-3, 4-3) or alternations of two kinds (e.g., 7-6, 4-3, 7-6, 4-3); the resolution of each suspension prepares the next.
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suspension with change of bass
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A type of suspension in which the bass changes when the suspension resolves; e.g., a 9-8 suspension that becomes a 9-6 because the bass skips up a third.
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contrary octaves/fifths
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Motion from one perfect interval to another of the same type, in which the voices move in opposite directions. One of the perfect intervals will be a compound interval.
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direct octaves/fifths
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Similar motion into a perfect interval, permitted only in inner voices or if the soprano moves by step.
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figured bass
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The combination of a bass line and Arabic numbers (figures), indicating chords without notating them fully; the numbers represent some of the intervals to be played above the bass line. Typically found in continuo parts.
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realization
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(1) A full musical texture created from a figured (or unfigured) bass. (2) In pieces composed with pcsets or rows, pitch classes in a specific register and rhythm. (3) Performance of a work from a text or graphic score.
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unequal fifths
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Similar motion from a d5 to P5. Prohibited in strict counterpoint, but allowable in some situations in four-part writing if not placed in the outer voices.
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arpeggiating 6/4
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A 6/4 created when the bass line sounds each note of a triad in turn (root, third, fifth), or alternates between the root and the fifth.
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cadential 6/4
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A 6/4 chord that embellishes the V chord. The cadential @ is spelled like a second-inversion tonic chord, but it has no tonic function. Instead, it displaces the V chord with simultaneous 6-5 and 4-3 suspension-like motions above the sustained bass note ^5. Usually occurs on a strong beat.
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contextual analysis
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A second level of harmonic analysis, showing how passing chords (and other voice-leading chords) function to expand the basic phrase model (T-PD-D-T).
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dominant substitute
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The harmony vii, vii, or vii (built on the leading tone), which may function as a substitute for the dominant. Because they lack the harmonically strong scale-degree ^5, dominant substitutes are weaker in dominant function than V(7).
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half-diminished seventh chord
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A seventh chord consisting of a diminished triad and a minor seventh.
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leading-tone chord
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Harmonies built on the leading tone: vii, vii, or vii.
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passing 6/4
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A voice-leading 6/4 chord, usually connecting root-position and first-inversion chords of the same harmony. We call it "passing" because the 6/4 harmonizes a bass-line passing tone.
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neighboring 6/4
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A 6/4 chord that embellishes and prolongs whichever chord it neighbors-whether a tonic, dominant, or predominant chord-and is usually metrically unaccented. It shares its bass note with the harmony it embellishes, while two upper voices move in stepwise upper-neighbor motion above that bass. Sometimes called a pedal 6/4.
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predominant
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(1) The triad or seventh chord built on scale-degrees 2, 4, or 6. (2) A category of harmonic function that includes chords that precede the dominant, typically ii and IV (ii and iv in minor keys), but also the Neapolitan sixth and augmented-sixth chords.
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tonic expansion
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An extension of tonic function effected by means of contrapuntal motion and voice-leading chords.
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vertical analysis
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A first level of analysis, assigning a Roman numeral label to each chord and inversion; in contrast to contextual analysis, which interprets function within the basic phrase model.
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voice exchange
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The expansion of a functional area in which two voices exchange chord members (e.g., 1 moves to 3 in the bass, and 3 moves to 1 in the soprano). This skip is often filled in with a passing tone or passing chord.
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falling-fifth chain
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Root motion by a series of descending fifths (or ascending fourths), creating a segment (or the entirety) of the chain I-IV-vii-iii-vi-ii-V-I in major, or i-iv-VII (or vii)-III-VI-ii-V-i in minor.
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falling-third chain
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Root motion by a series of descending thirds, creating a segment (or the entirety) of the chain I-vi-IV-ii-vii-V-iii-I in major, or i-VI-iv-ii-vii (or VII)-V-III-i in minor.
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linear chord
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A "chord" resulting from voice-leading motions. See voice-leading chord.
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retrogression
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Backward progressions that reverse typical common-practice harmonic norms; common in other musical idioms (e.g., V-IV in blues and rock music).
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tonic substitute
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A chord other than tonic (most often the submediant) that fulfills tonic function in the basic phrase model.
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antecedent phrase
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The first phrase of a period; ends with an inconclusive cadence (usually a half cadence).
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consequent phrase
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The second phrase of a period. The consequent phrase ends with a strong harmonic conclusion, usually an authentic cadence.
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contour motive
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A motive that maintains its contour, or musical shape, but changes its intervals; its rhythm may or may not be altered.
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deceptive cadence
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The cadence V(7)-vi in major, or V(7)-VI in minor. Generally, any nontonic resolution from V at a cadence.
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deceptive resolution
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A midphrase resolution to the submediant from V.
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melodic sequence
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A motive repeated several times in successive transpositions (often up or down by step).
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motive
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The smallest recognizable musical idea. Motives may be characterized by their pitches, contour, and/or rhythm, but rarely contain a cadence. To qualify as a motive, an idea generally has to be repeated (exactly or varied).
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period
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A musical unit consisting (usually) of two phrases. Generally, the first phrase ends with a weak cadence (typically a half cadence), answered by a more conclusive cadence (usually a PAC) at the end of the second phrase.
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contrasting period
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A period in which the two phrases do not share the same initial melodic material.
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parallel period
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A period in which the two phrases share the same beginning melodic material.
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phrase
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A basic unit of musical thought, similar to a sentence in language, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. In tonal music, a phrase must end with a cadence; in nontonal music, other musical features provide closure.
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phrase group
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Three or more phrases with tonal and/or thematic design elements that group them together as a unit.
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Phrygian cadence
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The half cadence iv6-V in minor keys, so called because of the half-step descent in the bass.
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plagal cadence
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The cadence IV-I (iv-i in minor), sometimes called the Amen cadence. Because the IV-I motion can be viewed as a tonic expansion, and because the plagal cadence often follows an authentic cadence, some use the term plagal resolution or plagal expansion of tonic.
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rhythmic motive
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A motive that maintains its rhythm but changes its contour and interval structure.
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sentence
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A phrase design with a 1 + 1 + 2 (or 2 + 2 + 4) motivic structure.
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subphrase
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A melodic and harmonic unit smaller than a phrase. Subphrases complete only a portion of the basic phrase progression and do not conclude with a cadence.
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linear intervallic pattern
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The intervallic framework between outer voices. LIPs underlie all sequences, although sometimes they are hidden behind complicated surface elaborations.
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sequence
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A musical pattern that is restated successively at different pitch levels. See harmonic sequence and melodic sequence.
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diatonic sequence
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A sequence made up of pitches belonging to the diatonic collection. When the sequence pattern is transposed, generic melodic intervals stay the same, but interval qualities change (e.g., major to minor, or perfect to diminished).
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harmonic sequence
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A succession of harmonies based on a root-progression chain and with repeated intervallic patterning in an upper voice.
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melodic sequence
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A motive repeated several times in successive transpositions (often up or down by step).
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sequence pattern
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The arrangement of intervals that underlies a sequence.
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applied chord
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A dominant-function harmony (V or vii, with or without the chordal seventh) applied to a chord other than tonic. An applied chord typically includes chromatic alterations (relative to the tonic key). Also called a secondary dominant.
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chromatic voice exchange
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The chromatic alteration of one of the pitches in a voice exchange (e.g., scale-degrees 2 and 4 in a ii(7) might exchange places to become #4 and 2 in a V7/V).
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cross relation
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The sudden chromatic alteration of a pitch in one voice part, immediately after the diatonic version has sounded in another voice.
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modulation
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A change of key, usually confirmed by a (perfect) authentic cadence.
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neighboring 4/2
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A 4/2 chord arising from neighbor tones in all three of the upper parts (e.g., in the tonic expansion I-ii4/2-I).
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passing 4/2
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A 4/2 chord created by passing motion in the bass (e.g., in the progression I-I4/2-IV6).
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secondary dominant
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A dominant-function harmony (V or vii, with or without the chordal seventh) applied to a chord other than tonic (may also refer only to a secondary V chord). A secondary dominant typically includes chromatic alterations (relative to the tonic key). Also called an applied dominant, or applied chord.
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temporary tonic
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The chord to which a secondary dominant or secondary leading-tone harmony is applied; also known as a tonicized harmony.
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tonicization
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The result when a chord becomes a temporary tonic by means of a secondary, or applied, dominant. The key of the passage does not really change, and the temporary tonic soon returns to its normal functional role in the primary key.
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voice-leading chord
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A "chord" created by combining embellishing tones in the expansion of a structural harmony. In analysis, we label the individual embellishments rather than the chord, or we label the chord as "voice-leading" (VL) or as a passing or neighboring chord.
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augmentation
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The process of systematically lengthening the duration of pitches in a musical line. There is usually a consistent proportion in relation to the original melody (e.g., each original duration may be doubled).
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cadential extension
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A type of extension occurring at the end of a phrase. Typically, the cadence is repeated with little new or elaborative melodic material.
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coda
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A section of music at the end of a piece, generally following a strong cadence in the tonic. Serves to extend the tonic area and bring the work to a close.
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compound melody
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A melody created by the interaction of two or three voices, usually separated by register. Often features large leaps.
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diminution
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The process of systematically shortening the duration of pitches in a melodic line. There is usually a consistent proportion in relation to the original melody (e.g., all note values may be reduced by a half).
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elision
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The simultaneous ending of one phrase and beginning of another, articulated by the same pitches.
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extension
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(1) The lengthening of a motive, melody, or phrase. (2) A pitch added to a triad or seventh chord (e.g., an added sixth, ninth, or eleventh).
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Fortspinnung
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A feature of Baroque-era works in which a melody is "spun out" in uninterrupted fashion. Continuous motion, uneven phrase lengths, melodic or harmonic sequences, changes of key, and elided phrases are all characteristics of Fortspinnung passages.
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fragmentation
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The isolation and/or development of a small but recognizable part of a motive.
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hypermeter
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A high-level metric grouping that interprets groups of measures as though they were groups of beats within a single measure. Hypermetric analyses may label entire bars of music as metrically strong or weak.
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lead-in
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A musical passage that connects the end of one melodic phrase with the beginning of the next.
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link
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Same as lead-in.
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metric reinterpretation
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A disruption in the established regular hypermetric pattern at the cadence. This can occur when a weak measure simultaneously functions as a strong measure in the case of a phrase elision.
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overlap
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(1) A means of phrase connection in which one phrase ends simultaneously with the beginning of the next. May involve more than one musical layer: while one or more voice parts finish the first phrase, one or more other voice parts simultaneously begin the next. (2) A voice-leading error in which one voice overlaps into the register of an adjacent voice on an adjacent beat.
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phrase rhythm
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The interaction of hypermeter and phrase structure.
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step progression
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A technique for writing compound melody, in which nonadjacent pitches are connected by an overall stepwise motion.
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subphrase
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A melodic and harmonic unit smaller than a phrase. Subphrases complete only a portion of the basic phrase progression and do not conclude with a cadence.
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tonal inversion
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Two intervals that, when combined, span an octave (e.g., E3- G#3, a major third, plus G#3-E4, a minor sixth). When inverted, major intervals become minor (and vice versa), diminished become augmented (and vice versa), and perfect stay perfect. The generic interval numbers of inversionally related intervals sum to 9 (third and sixth, second and seventh, etc.).
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truncate
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To cut off a melody or motive before it ends.
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secondary dominant
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A dominant-function harmony (V or vii, with or without the chordal seventh) applied to a chord other than tonic (may also refer only to a secondary V chord). A secondary dominant typically includes chromatic alterations (relative to the tonic key). Also called an applied dominant, or applied chord.
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secondary leading-tone chord
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A leading-tone chord that functions as an applied, or secondary, dominant; usually a fully diminished seventh chord.
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closely related keys
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Any key whose tonic is a diatonic triad (major or minor) in the original key. The key signatures of closely related keys differ at most by one accidental.
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abrupt modulation
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Another term for direct modulation.
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direct modulation
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Modulation accomplished without the use of a pivot chord or pitch.
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pivot-chord modulation
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See common-chord modulation.
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pivot chord
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In a common-chord modulation, a harmony that functions diatonically in both the old key and the new key.
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balanced sections
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A feature of binary forms in which material from the end of the first section returns at the end of the second section.
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binary form
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The formal design of a composition organized into two sections. Usually each section is repeated.
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continuous binary
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A binary form in which the first large section ends with a cadence that is not in the tonic key. The harmonic motion of the piece must continue into the following section to a conclusion in the tonic key.
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rounded binary
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A binary form in which melodic or motivic features in the initial phrase return at the end of the piece, rounding out the formal plan.
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sectional binary
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A binary form in which the first section ends with a cadence on the tonic. The section is tonally complete and could stand on its own.
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simple binary
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A binary form that generally has an ||: A :||: B :|| or ||: A :||: A :|| design.
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design
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In discussions of musical form, the melodic or thematic aspects, as distinct from the harmonic structure.
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minuet and trio
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The most common type of composite ternary form, generally written in triple meter. Typically the third (dance-like) movement of a Classical-era sonata, string quartet, or symphony.
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scherzo and trio
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A composite ternary form in a fast tempo, usually in triple meter. Typically the third movement of a Romantic-era sonata, quartet, or symphony.
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section
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A large division within a composition, usually set off by a cadence (or other elements denoting closure). May be delineated by repeat signs or a double bar.
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strain
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In marches, the sections corresponding to the A and B portions of binary (or ternary) forms.
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ternary form
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A composition divided into three sections. The outer sections usually consist of the same musical material, while the inner section features contrasting musical qualities (including key), creating an overall A B A form. In some song forms, the contrasting section may occur last (A A B).
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composite ternary
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A formal scheme created by joining smaller, complete forms into an A B A form (such as a minuet and trio, or scherzo and trio). The A and B sections themselves may have their own formal type (such as rounded binary).
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simple ternary
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A ternary form that is relatively brief (as opposed to composite ternary), with three distinct sections, usually in the form A B A. The B section generally expresses both a contrasting key and contrasting thematic material.
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borrowed chord
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A harmony whose spelling and chord quality are derived from the parallel mode. Most often, chords from the parallel minor mode appear in a major key. Another name for mixture chord.s
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mixture
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(1) Harmonic technique of shifting temporarily from a major key to the parallel minor (or vice versa) in a musical passage. (2) A technique of "mixing" the parallel major and minor modes, used most often in major keys, where the modal scale-degrees 3, 6, and 7 are borrowed from the parallel natural minor.
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modal scale degree
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The scale degrees that differ between major and natural minor scales: 3, 6, and 7.
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parallel key
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Keys in different modes that share the same letter name and tonic, such as F Major and F minor.
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Picardy third
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In a minor key, the raised third of a tonic chord (making the harmony major), typically at an authentic cadence at the end of a piece.
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augmented-sixth chord
|
A chord featuring 6 in the bass and #4 in an upper voice, creating the interval of an augmented sixth. Such chords usually resolve to V: 6 and #4 resolve outward by half step to ^5.
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diminished-third chord
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A version of the augmented sixth chord, with 6 in an upper voice and #4 in the bass, creating the interval of a diminished third.
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French augmented-sixth chord
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An augmented-sixth chord with 1 and 2 in the upper voices. The distinctive sound of this chord is created by two dissonances above the bass: the augmented sixth and the augmented fourth.
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German augmented-sixth chord
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An augmented-sixth chord with 1 and 3 in the upper voices. This chord, characterized by its perfect fifth above the bass, is an enharmonic respelling of a major-minor seventh chord.
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Italian augmented-sixth chord
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An augmented sixth chord with (doubled) 1 in the upper voices.
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Neapolitan
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The major triad built on II; typically occurs in first inversion (Neapolitan sixth), with 4 in the bass and 2 and 6 in the upper voices. May also appear in root position, with 2 in the bass.
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added-sixth chord
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A triad that contains an extra pitch a major sixth above the bass note.
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altered fifth chord
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A triad or seventh chord that has been colored and intensified by raising or lowering the fifth by a half step.
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blue note
|
One of three possible pitches, derived from the blues scale, that can be altered in popular music for expressive effect: 3, #4 (or 5), and 7.
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blues scale
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This scale blurs the distinction between major and minor by permitting both 3 and 3 and both 7 and 7. It also allows #4 and 4, and 5 and 5.
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bridge
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The contrasting b section in an a a b a thirty-two-bar song form.
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choruses 1 and 2
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The outer sections of an a a b a quaternary song form. They share the same or similar musical material.
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couplet
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Two successive lines of poetic text that rhyme or establish a rhyme scheme.
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extension
|
(1) The lengthening of a motive, melody, or phrase. (2) A pitch added to a triad or seventh chord (e.g., an added sixth, ninth, or eleventh).
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modified strophic
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A variation of strophic form. Rather than repeating the melody exactly, the music may be slightly altered from verse to verse.
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ninth chord
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A triad or seventh chord with a ninth added above the bass.
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quaternary song form
|
A song form consisting of four (usually eight-bar) phrases. The first two phrases (chorus 1) begin the same (they may be identical or may differ at the cadence). They are followed by a contrasting section (bridge) and then a return to the opening material (chorus 2), making the overall form a a b a. Also known as thirty-two-bar song form.
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refrain
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(1) The section of a song that recurs with the same music and text. (2) In popular-music verse refrain form, the second portion of the song; generally in a a b a, or quaternary, song form. (3) In rondo form (usually A B A C A or A B A C A B (D) A), the refrain is the A section, which returns with opening thematic material in the tonic key. Another word for ritornello.
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rhyme scheme
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The pattern of rhyming in a poetic verse or stanza, generally designated with lowercase alphabet letters. Repeated letters indicate lines that end with rhyming words.
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song cycle
|
A group of songs, generally performed as a unit, either set to a single poet's cycle of poetry or set to poems that have been grouped by the composer into a cycle.
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strophe
|
A stanza, or verse, in a song.
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strophic
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A song form in which more than one strophe (verse) of text is sung to the same music.
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sus chord
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In popular music, a chord with a fourth above the bass instead of a third. The fourth does not necessarily resolve, as in a typical 4-3 suspension.
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through composed
|
A composition organized so that each section (e.g., each verse in a song) consists of different music, with little or no previous material recurring as the work progresses.
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verse
|
(1) The section of a song that returns with the same music but different text. (2) In popular song forms, the first section of verse-refrain form; the verse is usually not repeated, and it may be tonally less stable than the refrain.
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verse-refrain song form
|
A typical form of popular songs and show tunes: an introductory verse, possibly modulatory, precedes a chorus that is often in quaternary song form (a a b a).
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chaconne
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A set of continuous variations in which the entire harmonic texture, not just the bass line, is repeated and varied. While the bass line may remain unchanged for several successive variations, it is usually altered as the chaconne progresses through rhythmic variation, changes in inversion, or substitute harmonies.
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character variation
|
A variation intended to reproduce a particular musical style or evoke a certain genre.
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chromatic variation
|
A variation that contrasts with the original theme through increased chromaticism. The chromaticism can embellish the melodic line or elaborate the chord progressions.
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coda
|
A section of music at the end of a piece, generally following a strong cadence in the tonic. Serves to extend the tonic area and bring the work to a close.
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continuous variation
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A variation form characterized by a continuous flow of musical ideas as opposed to strong, section-defining cadences and Fortspinnung phrase structure. Continuous variations usually feature a short bass line or harmonic progression that remains constant through repeated variations.
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episode
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(1) A contrasting section in a rondo; generally less tonally stable than the rondo's refrain. (2) A modulating passage in a fugue.
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five-part rondo
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A rondo with the form A B A C A or A B A B A, plus optional coda.
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ground bass
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The repeated bass line in a set of continuous variations. It remains constant while the upper voices are varied.
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passacaglia
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Continuous variations with a repeated bass line. The bass melody (or ground bass) remains constant, while the upper voices are varied.
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refrain
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(1) The section of a song that recurs with the same music and text. (2) In popular-music verse refrain form, the second portion of the song; generally in a a b a, or quaternary, song form. (3) In rondo form (usually A B A C A or A B A C A B (D) A), the refrain is the A section, which returns with opening thematic material in the tonic key. Another word for ritornello.
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retransition
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A musical passage that harmonically prepares for the return of previously heard material. In sonata form, it appears at the end of the development section and prolongs the dominant harmony in preparation for the tonic return of the recapitulations first theme group. In rondo form, a retransition may appear before any recurrence of the refrain (A section).
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rhythmic acceleration
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The gradual move from long note values to shorter note values in a passage of music; also called a rhythmic crescendo.
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rondo
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A musical form characterized by a repeated section (refrain, or ritornello) alternating with sections that contrast in key, mode, texture, harmonic complexity, thematic content, and/or style (usually A B A C A or A B A C A B (D) A). The contrasting sections are called episodes.
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sectional variation
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A variation form in which each variation is clearly distinguished from the next by a strong conclusive cadence (and often by double bars). Each variation could be played as a complete stand-alone section.
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seven-part rondo
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A rondo whose form is A B A C A B (D) A, plus optional coda.
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textural variation
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A variation written in a texture that contrasts with that of surrounding variations or the original theme. Two possibilities are (1) the simplifying variation, which features only a few voices, resulting in a thin texture; and (2) the contrapuntal variation, which features imitative entries of the voices.
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timbral variation
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A variation that exploits instrumentation and/or sound color different from previous variations.
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transition
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A musical passage that modulates from one key and establishes another, often by means of sequential treatment. In sonata form, the transition links the first and second theme groups.
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cadenza
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A solo portion at the end of a concerto movement that features rapid passagework and other technical challenges. Can appear in any concerto movement, but is generally found in the first movement after a prominent cadential 6/4 harmony in the orchestra, before the beginning of the coda.
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closing theme
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A third theme that might be found near the end of a sonata-form exposition; part of the second theme group if it shares the same key.
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developmental coda
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A coda having the character and structure of a sonata-form development; sometimes called a second development.
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codetta
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A "little coda" at the end of a section or piece.
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concerto
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A composition for a solo instrument and orchestra. Concertos often consist of three movements, arranged fast-slow-fast (following a formal pattern similar to the three-movement sonata).
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development
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The section of a sonata form devoted to the exploration and variation of motives and themes from the exposition. Generally features sequential and modulatory passages.
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exposition
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In a sonata form, the first large section (often repeated), where the themes and motives for the entire movement are "exposed" for the first time. The typical Classical-era exposition features two primary key areas with a modulatory transition between them.
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double exposition
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A feature of sonata form in some Classical-era concertos, where material in the exposition is heard twice: once played by the orchestra without modulation to the secondary key, and then by the soloist following the standard tonal scheme (and with the orchestra playing an accompanimental role).
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first theme
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The tonic-key melody (or melodies) with which a sonata form begins.
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first theme group
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The tonic-key melody (or melodies) with which a sonata form begins.
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recapitulation
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The final section of a sonata form (or penultimate section, if the movement ends with a coda), in which the music from the exposition is heard again, this time with the theme groups usually in the tonic key.
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retransition
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A musical passage that harmonically prepares for the return of previously heard material. In sonata form, it appears at the end of the development section and prolongs the dominant harmony in preparation for the tonic return of the recapitulations first theme group. In rondo form, a retransition may appear before any recurrence of the refrain (A section).
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second theme group
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The melody (or melodies) heard at the start of the new key area in a sonata form.
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sonata
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A multimovement composition for piano or a solo-line instrument (usually with keyboard accompaniment), typically in three or four movements. The first movement is almost always in sonata form.
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sonata form
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A formal plan with a three-part design (exposition, development, recapitulation) and a two-part harmonic structure (the most common is ||: I-V :||: I :|| for major keys, with motion to III instead of V in minor keys). Sonata form can be thought of as an expanded continuous rounded binary form.
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sonatina
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A "little sonata." The first movement of a sonatina is usually a reduced sonata form, with compact first and second themes and a very short development section or no development at all.
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altered common chord
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A type of modulation whose pivot chord is a chromatic chord in one or both keys (e.g., mixture chord, secondary dominant, secondary leading-tone chord).
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altered pivot chord
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Another term for altered common-chord modulation.
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chromatic inflection
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A method of modulation effected by shifting one pitch by a half step.
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chromaticized sequence
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A diatonic sequence transformed by substituting chromatic harmonies for diatonic ones, or by chromatically embellishing the sequence.
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common-dyad modulation
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A type of modulation in which two pitches of a chord in the initial key function as a "pivot" between the two keys. Other pitches of this modulating chord may shift up or down a half step, making a chromatic connection.
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common-tone modulation
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A type of modulation in which only a single pitch of a chord or melodic line in the initial key functions as a "pivot" between the two keys. Other pitches of this modulating chord may shift up or down a half step, making a chromatic connection.
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enharmonic modulation
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A type of modulation in which a chord resolves according to the function of its enharmonic equivalent to establish a new key. Chords that can be spelled (and therefore resolved) enharmonically include fully diminished sevenths, dominant sevenths, and German augmented sixths.
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harmonic ambiguity
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Characteristic of highly chromatic passages in late Romantic music. The musical coherence comes not through strength of progression (strong root-movement-based chord progressions) but rather through strength of line: smooth linear connections between chords.
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pivot-dyad modulation
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See common-dyad modulation.
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pivot-tone modulation
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See common-tone modulation.
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aggregate
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A collection of all twelve pitch classes. The term generally refers to the combination of two or more twelve-tone rows so that, together, new twelve-note collections are generated. Aggregates may also appear in non-twelve-tone music.
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bimodality
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The simultaneous use of two modes in two different layers of music.
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cardinality
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The number of elements in a collection.
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center
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A pitch or pitch class pervasively heard in a work or section of a work. A center does not imply a functional system of scale degrees in any key or mode (as does traditional functional tonality), but it can establish a sense of hierarchy.
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centric
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Music that focuses on a pitch or pitch-class center, but not in the sense of a conventional tonal hierarchy.
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diminished scale
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Another name for octatonic scale, so called because of the fully diminished seventh chords that are subsets of any octatonic scale.
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element
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Most commonly, each single pitch class in a set, segment, or collection. The elements of a set or segment may also be dynamics, durations, articulations, or other musical features.
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focal pitch
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A pitch or pitch class that is emphasized in a piece through repetition or other means, but does not establish a hierarchy with other pitches in the piece's collection.
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integer notation
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The system of labeling pcs by number instead of letter name: C = 0, C# or D = 1, D = 2, D# or E = 3, and so on. We substitute the letters t for 10 (B or A#) and e for 11 (B).
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literal complement
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The pcset that, when combined with a given pcset, produces the complete aggregate.
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Locrian mode
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An ordered collection with the pattern of whole and half steps corresponding to the diatonic white-note collection starting and ending on B. Sounds like a natural minor scale with scale degrees ^2 and ^5 lowered by one half step.
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nontonal
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Music that freely employs all twelve pitch classes. The pervasive chromaticism and absence of whole- and half-step scale patterns make a true tonic pitch class impossible to discern in nontonal music.
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octatonic scale
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A scale composed of eight (octa-) distinct pcs in alternating whole and half steps.
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pentatonic scale
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A scale with five pcs. In Western music, the pentatonic scale is a subset of the diatonic collection. The two most common are the minor pentatonic (do, me, fa, sol, te) and the major pentatonic (do, re, mi, sol, la)
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polymodality
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Music with several modes sounding in different layers of music simultaneously.
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segment
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An ordered sequence of pitches or pcs.
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set
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A group of unordered pitches or pitch classes. See collection.
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subset
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A subgroup of a given set.
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superset
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The larger set from which a subset is derived.
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symmetrical set
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A set whose pcs can be ordered so that the intervals between adjacent elements are the same when read left to right or right to left. The pentatonic scale, whole-tone scale, octatonic scale, and chromatic collection are all symmetrical sets.
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split-third chord
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A four-note "triad" with both a major and a minor third above the root.
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whole-tone scale
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An ordered collection of pcs arranged so that each scale step lies a whole step away from the next. A whole-tone scale consists of six elements and exists in two distinct forms: pcs {0 2 4 6 8 t} and {1 3 5 7 9 e}.
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interval-class vector
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Six numbers within square brackets, without commas, that describe the interval-class content of a given pcset. For example, the ic vector for the trichord {0 4 6}, [010101], shows that pcs in this trichord can be paired to make one whole step, one major third, and one tritone-no other intervals.
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mod12
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An arithmetic that keeps integers in the range 0 to 11. To convert a number greater than 11, divide by 12 and take the remainder. For example, 14 / 12 = 1, remainder 2; therefore, 14 mod12 = 2. Used to label pcs in integer notation and perform operations such as transposition orinversion.
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pentachord
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A collection of five distinct pitches or pitch classes.
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pitch-class interval
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The interval spanned by two pcs. (1) Ordered pitch-class intervals measure the distance from pc a to b by subtracting (b - a) mod12; the distance can range from 0 to 11. (2) Unordered pitch-class intervals measure the shortest distance between two pcs, either from the first to the second or vice versa; the distance ranges from 0 to 6. "Unordered pitch-class interval" is another name for interval class.
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trichord
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A collection of three distinct pitches or pitch classes.
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aggregate
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A collection of all twelve pitch classes. The term generally refers to the combination of two or more twelve-tone rows so that, together, new twelve-note collections are generated. Aggregates may also appear in non-twelve-tone music.
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common-tone theorem
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The number in each position of a pcset's ic vector tells two things: (1) the number of times a particular interval class occurs between elements of the set, and (2) the number of common tones that will result when that particular interval class is used to transpose the pcset. The latter principle is called the common-tone theorem.
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Forte number
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the numbers before the hyphen sum to 12; the numbers after the hyphen are the same (e.g., 4-Z15, 8-Z15).
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inverse
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Given a pc or pc interval, the inverse is the corresponding pc or pc interval such that the two sum to 0 (mod12). For example, the inverse of pc 5 is pc 7.
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mode of limited transposition
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Composer Olivier Messiaen's term for pc collections that can be transposed by only a few intervals; other transpositions replicate the original collection. The wholetone and octatonic collections are examples.
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normal order
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The order of consecutive pcs in a pcset that (1) spans the smallest interval and (2) places the smallest intervals toward the left.
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prime form
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The representative pcset for a set class, beginning with 0 and enclosed in square brackets. To find the prime form of a set, determine the set's best normal order (which may include finding the normal order for its inversion), and transpose to begin with 0.
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set class
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The collection of pcsets that contains all possible distinct transpositions of the pcset, as well as all distinct transpositions of its inversion. Pcsets in the same set class also share the same ic vector.
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dodecaphonic
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See twelve-tone.
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invariance
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The duplication of pitch-class groups in two serial rows or two pcsets; also, anything unchanged after inversion or some other transformation.
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palindrome
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A segment (of pitches, pcs, intervals, and/or rhythms) that reads the same backward and forward.
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retrograde (R)
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The form of a twelve-tone row in which the pcs are in the reverse order of the prime. Abbreviated Rn, where n refers to the last pc of therow, i.e., the first pc of the original, prime row.
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retrograde inversion (RI)
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The form of a twelve-tone row in which the pcs are in the reverse order of the inversion. Abbreviated RIn, where n refers to the last pc of the row, i.e., the first pc of the inverted row.
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row
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A specific ordering of all twelve pitch classes.
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serial
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Music composed with (ordered) pitchclass segments and ordered transformations of these segments; may also feature ordered durations, dynamics, and articulations.
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twelve tone
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Music with a specific ordering of all twelve pitch classes, called a row. The row is musically realized by means of transformations (transposition, inversion, retrograde, or retrograde inversion) throughout a composition.
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all-combinatorial hexachord
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A hexachord capable of all four types of combinatoriality (P-, I-, R-, and RI-combinatoriality).
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hexachordal combinatoriality
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A compositional technique in which two forms of the same row are paired so that the rows' initial hexachords, when combined, complete an aggregate. Similarly, the rows' second hexachords, when combined, complete an aggregate. There are four kinds of hexachordal combinatoriality, based on the transformational relationships between the row forms: P, I, R, and RI.
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registral invariance
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A compositional technique in which certain pcs are realized as pitches only in one specific register. Also known as frozen register and pitch fixation.
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row elision
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One way of connecting rows in a twelve tone piece: the same pc or pcs are shared at the end of one row and the beginning of the next. Also called row linkage.
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row matrix
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A twelve-by-twelve array that displays all possible P, I, R, and RI forms of a row.
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secondary set
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An aggregate formed by combining segments belonging to more than one row form.
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additive rhythm
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An ametric rhythm created when a brief duration (often a sixteenth or smaller) is chosen as a base element, and then several brief durations are added together to form larger durations.
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ametric
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Music for which no regular meter is perceived; may be notated in nontraditional ways.
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asymmetrical meter
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A compound meter with beat units of unequal duration. These irregular beat lengths are typically (though not always) created by five or seven beat divisions, grouped into beat lengths such as 2 + 3 or 2 + 3 + 2.
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changing meter
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In contemporary pieces, meter that changes from measure to measure.
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Fibonacci series
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An infinite series in which each new member is the sum of the previous two (e.g., 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, etc.). Associated with compositions by Bartok and others, and sometimes used in conjunction with time points.
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graphic notation
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The nonstandard symbols used to indicate pitch, duration, articulation, etc., in some nontonal scores.
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indeterminate
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Some musical element or event in a score that is left to chance (either in performance or during composition).
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integral serialism
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The extension of serial procedures to musical elements other than pitch. Also called total serialism.
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metric modulation
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A means of smoothing what would otherwise be abrupt changes of tempo by introducing subdivisions or groups of beats in the first tempo that match durations in the new tempo. The new tempo is recognized in retrospect, much like a modulation by pivot chord.
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polymeter
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Music with two or more different simultaneous metric streams.
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symmetrical meter
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A meter with equally spaced primary beats within each measure, each beat having the same number of divisions.
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text notation
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A musical score with instructions written in prose or poetry, without any traditional musical notation.
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time-line notation
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Music written so that the passing of time is measured out in the number of seconds elapsed between markers.
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total serialism
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The extension of serial procedures to musical elements other than pitch. Also called integral serialism.
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chance
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A method of composition or performance that is determined by a random or unpredictable procedure, such as the toss of coins, dice, or the IChing.
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indeterminate
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Some musical element or event in a score that is left to chance (either in performance or during composition).
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mobile form
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The form of compositions with segments, sections, or movements that may be played half steps W-H-W-W-H-W-W. Natural minor shares the same key signature as the relative major key.
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moment form
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The concept that sections of a piece do not have to connect in some logical way or in a predetermined order, but can change abruptly from one style of music to another.
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nonteleological form
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Form in which the music lacks a sense of a goal or direction. Moment form and mobile form are examples.
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ostinato
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A repeated rhythmic and/or pitch pattern.
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phasing
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The compositional technique of moving musical patterns in and out of alignment, creating additional sounds and patterns that are not present in the original materials.
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pitch symmetry
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The spacing of pitches at equal distances above and below a central pitch.
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pitch-time graph
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A graph that plots pitch (the vertical axis) against time (the horizontal axis).
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teleological form
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Form that gives the listener a sense that the music moves toward a goal; usually associated with common-practice forms.
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time-line notation
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Music written so that the passing of time is measured out in the number of seconds elapsed between markers.
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tritone axis
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Music (in nontonal pieces) that moves from a first pitch center to a second pitch center a tritone away, and then returns; analogous to the tonic-dominant axis in tonal music.
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parody
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The compositional borrowing or reshaping of another composer's materials to emphasize particular aspects.
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postmodernism
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A style in which materials originating from different times and styles are combined. The term is borrowed from literary and art criticism.
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style juxtaposition
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A method of composing in which elements strongly associated with one musical style are placed side-by-side with another style without a transition between the two.
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stylistic allusion
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A musical passage that either literally quotes another composition, or is written in imitation of a previous style, intended to be recognized by the listener as belonging to another time or piece.
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