Music Midterm 2 Important Names

Front 1

Glenn Miller (1904-44)

Back 1

Trombonist and bandleader; formed his own band in 1937. Miller developed a peppy, clean-sounding style that appealed to small-town Midwestern people as well as to the big-city, East and West Coast constituency.

Front 2

John Hammond (1910–87)

Back 2

Influential jazz enthusiast and promoter who helped Benny Goodman, Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday, Count Basie, and (much later) Aretha Franklin, Bob Dylan, and Bruce Springsteen secure recording contracts with Columbia Records, where he worked as an A&R (artists and repertoire) man.

Front 3

Benny Goodman (1909–86)

Back 3

Clarinetist and popular band leader; known as the “King of Swing.” His popularity and the success of his band helped establish the swing era in the early 1930s. He was the first white bandleader to hire black musicians in his band.

Front 4

Fletcher Henderson (1898–1952)

Back 4

Musician, bandleader, and arranger; he and his band are widely credited with inspiring the rise of swing music in the 1930s.

Front 5

William “Count” Basie (1904–84)

Back 5

African American pianist and bandleader; gained much of his early experience as a player and bandleader in Kansas City, Missouri. His band was known for its improvisatory style and strong sense of swing

Front 6

Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington (1899–1974)

Back 6

Pianist, composer, arranger, and bandleader; widely regarded as one of the most important American musicians of the twentieth century. As a composer and arranger, he devised unusual musical forms, combined instruments in unusual ways, and created complex, distinctive tone colors.

Front 7

Roy Claxton Acuff (1903–92)

Back 7

The most popular hillbilly singer of the swing era; in 1938, joined the regular cast of WSM’s Grand Ole Opry and soon became its biggest star. Acuff performed in a style that was self-consciouslyrooted in southern folk music

Front 8

Len Slye (1911–98)

Back 8

Vocalist for and leader of the Sons of the Pioneers; later changed his name to Roy Rogers

Front 9

Bob Wills (1905–75)

Back 9

Fiddler from East Texas whose musical career ran from the 1920s through the 1960s. His group, the Texas Playboys, pioneered western swing music. Bob Wills is today widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modern country and western music.

Front 10

Gene Autry (1907–98)

Back 10

The first successful singing cowboy; born in Texas, he was a successful film star and a popular country and western musician. Helped establish the “western” component of country and western music. Developed a style designed to reach out to a broader audience, with a less pronounced regional accent, a deep baritone voice, and a touch of the crooners’ smoothness.

Front 11

Les Paul (b. 1915)

Back 11

A guitarist and inventor, designed his own eight-track tape recorder and began in 1948 to release a series of popular recordings featuring his own playing, overdubbed to sound like an ensemble of six or more guitars

Front 12

Frank (Francis Albert) Sinatra (1915–98)

Back 12

Born in Hoboken New Jersey into a working-class Italian family. His singing style combined the crooning style of Bing Crosby with the bel canto technique of Italian opera.

Front 13

Nat “King” Cole (Nathaniel Coles) (1917–65)

Back 13

The most successful black recording artist of the postwar period. A brilliant piano improviser, he exerted a strong influence on later jazz pianists such as Oscar Peterson and Bill Evans. His biggest commercial successes were sentimental ballads accompanied by elaborate orchestral arrangements.

Front 14

Pete Seeger (b. 1919)

Back 14

Singer, banjo player, and political activist. He led the urban folk group The Weavers

Front 15

Muddy Waters (McKinley Morganfield) (1915–83)

Back 15

Often called the “Father of Chicago Blues,” he was discovered by Allan Lomax in 1941. Waters sang in a country style and was a charismatic performer. He played both acoustic and electric slide guitar and was the single greatest influence on the British blues boom.

Front 16

Louis Jordan (1908–75)

Back 16

Arkansas-born saxophone player and singer who began making recordings for Decca Records in 1939. He led the most successful and influential jump band, the Tympany Five. Jordan was tremendously popular with black listeners and was able to build an extensive white audience during and after World War II

Front 17

Milt Gabler (b. 1911)

Back 17

White record producer who worked with Louis Jordan in the 1940s and later produced rock ‘n’ roll hits by Bill Haley and the Comets.

Front 18

Leroy Carr (1905–35)

Back 18

Born in Indianapolis, Indiana, developed a smooth, laid-back approach to blues singing that contrasted sharply with rough-edged rural blues. He attracted a national black audience.

Front 19

Scrapper Blackwell (1903–62)

Back 19

Along with pianist Leroy Carr, made several race records in the late 1920s and 1930s and established the roots for the blues crooner style

Front 20

Cecil Gant (1913–51)

Back 20

A blues crooner who had a hit with a love song called “I Wonder,” sung in a gentle, slightly nasal, bluesy style, and accompanied only by his own piano playing

Front 21

Charles Brown

Back 21

The most successful blues crooner of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Brown was a soft-spoken, Texas-born pianist who studied classical piano as a child and graduated from college in 1942 at the age of twenty

Front 22

Willie Dixon (1915–92)

Back 22

Chess Records’s house songwriter, bass player, producer, and arranger.

Front 23

Clyde McPhatter (1932–72)

Back 23

A gospel singer from North Carolina and the son of a Baptist preacher and a church organist. The lead singer for the Dominoes. His highly inflected vocal style can be heard on the Dominoes’ hit record “Have Mercy Baby.”

Front 24

Ruth Brown (b. 1928)

Back 24

Also known as “Miss Rhythm,” born in Virginia. and began her professional career at the age of sixteen. In 1949, Brown signed with the new independent label Atlantic Records. Chart figures suggest that Ruth Brown was the most popular black female vocalist in America between 1951 and 1954.

Front 25

Big Mama Thornton (1926–84)

Back 25

Born in Montgomery, Alabama, the daughter of a Baptist minister. Thornton began her professional career as a singer, drummer, harmonica player, and comic on the black vaudeville circuit and later settled in Houston, Texas, working as a singer in black nightclubs. Her imposing physique and sometimes malevolent personality helped ensure her survival in the rough-and-tumble world of con artists and gangsters.

Front 26

Johnnie Ray (1927–90)

Back 26

Partially deaf since childhood, rose nevertheless to become one of the biggest international pop stars of the early 1950s. Crowned the “Prince of Wails” and parodied as the “Guy with the Rubber Face and the Squirt Gun Eyes,” Ray created an idiosyncratic style based partly in African American modes of performance, and in so doing paved the way for the rock ’n’ roll stars of the later 1950s.

Front 27

Patti Page (b. 1927)

Back 27

Sold more records than any other female singer of the early 1950s. Page had success with love songs (“All My Love,” Number One pop in 1950) and novelties like “The Doggie in the Window” (Number One pop in 1953), but her biggest hit was a recording of the “Tennessee Waltz.”

Front 28

Eddy Arnold (b. 1918)

Back 28

The most popular country crooner. Arnold not only dominated the country charts from 1947 to 1954 but also scored eleven Top 40 hits on the pop charts

Front 29

Ernest Tubb (1914–84)

Back 29

Began his career in the 1930s as a disciple of Jimmie Rodgers. By the 1940s, Tubb had developed into one of the first honky-tonk performers. He was one of the first musicians to move toward a harder-edged country sound and to switch to amplified instruments, and he wrote some of the classic songs in the honky-tonk genre.

Front 30

Bill Monroe (1911–97)

Back 30

Born in Kentucky, started playing music at a young age and was influenced by his uncle (a country fiddler) and by a black musician and railroad worker named Arnold Schulz. In 1938, Monroe started the Blue Grass Boys, and the following year he joined the cast of the Grand Ole Opry.

Front 31

Hank Thompson (b. 1925)

Back 31

A native of Waco, Texas, created a popular variation of honky-tonk music by mixing it with elements of western swing.

Front 32

Kitty Wells (b. 1918)

Back 32

Born in Nashville, Tennessee, as Muriel Dearson; married the popular country entertainer Johnny Wright and began appearing with him on the radio in 1938. Her stage name was adopted from an old southern parlor song, “Sweet Kitty Wells.”

Front 33

Hank Williams (1923–53)

Back 33

The most significant single figure to emerge in country music during the immediate post–World War II period. Williams wrote and sang many songs in the course of his brief career that were enormously popular with country audiences at the time; between 1947 and 1953, he amassed an astounding thirty-six Top 10 records on the country charts, including such Number One hits as “Lovesick Blues,” “Cold, Cold Heart,” “Jambalaya (on the Bayou),” and “Your Cheatin’ Heart.”

Front 34

Carole King

Back 34

Singer-songwriter who wrote many hits in the 1960s with Gerry Goffin. In 1971, the success of her album Tapestry made her a major recording star.

Front 35

Led Zeppelin

Back 35

British hard rock band that formed in London in 1968. Zeppelin’s sledgehammer style of guitar-focused rock music drew on various influences, including urban blues, San Francisco psychedelia, and the virtuoso guitar playing of Jimi Hendrix.

Front 36

Emerson, Lake, and Palmer

Back 36

Art rock band that formed in London in 1970. Their live album, Pictures at an Exhibition (1971) borrowed its structural elements from a suite of piano pieces by the Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky (1839-81).

Front 37

Glen Campbell

Back 37

Starting in the late 1960s, Campbell had a string of crossover hits on the country and pop charts, including “Gentle on My Mind” (1967), “By the Time I Get to Phoenix” (1967), and “Wichita Lineman” (1968)

Front 38

Charlie Rich

Back 38

“The Silver Fox”; born in Arkansas in 1932, he was a talented jazz and blues pianist. He switched to pop-oriented country music by the 1960s and scored a series of Number One crossover hits during the mid-1970s.

Front 39

John Denver

Back 39

Vocalist who recorded country pop hits such as “Thank God I’m a Country Boy” (1975). His pop-oriented hit records were despised by many in the traditional audience for country music.

Front 40

Olivia Newton-John

Back 40

Born in England, grew up in Australia. She scored a series of Top 10 country crossover hits during the mid-1970s.

Front 41

Dolly Parton

Back 41

Parton was born in the hill country of Tennessee and began her recording career at age eleven. She moved to Nashville in 1964 and built her career with regular appearances on country music radio and television

Front 42

David Bowie

Back 42

“Glam rock” pioneer who established the character of Ziggy Stardust.

Front 43

Joni Mitchell

Back 43

Singer-songwriter. Her album Blue (1971) consisted of a cycle of songs about the complexities of love.

Front 44

Carlos Santana

Back 44

Born in Mexico, he began his musical career playing guitar in Tijuana. He formed his band in San Francisco in the late 1960s. Their 1971 album Abraxas established a Latin American substream within rock.

Front 45

Donna Summer

Back 45

One of the biggest stars to emerge from disco in the 1970s. She sang on several disco classics, including “Love to Love You Baby” (1976) and “Good Times” (1979)

Front 46

Willie Nelson

Back 46

Born in Texas, Nelson was one of the most influential figures in the progressive country movement. Nelson’s rise to national fame came in the mid-1970s, through his association with a group of musicians collectively known as “the Outlaws.”

Front 47

Waylon Jennings

Back 47

The centerpiece of “the Outlaws” and a member of Buddy Holly’s rock ’n’ roll group, the Crickets. Jennings cultivated an image as a rebel, and in 1972 recorded an album called Ladies Love Outlaws.

Front 48

Townes Van Zandt

Back 48

Born in Fort Worth, Texas, Van Zandt was a singer-songwriter who became a cult hero of the progressive country movement. Although Van Zandt never placed a record on the country Top 40 charts, his fifteen LPs became underground classics, and his songs were covered by prominent country musicians.

Front 49

Josiah Marcus Garvey

Back 49

Jamaican writer and political leader who inspired a “Back to Africa” repatriation movement among black Americans in the 1920s. He founded Rastafarianism, a prominent theme of Reggae music.

Front 50

Rude Boys

Back 50

An informal and unruly Jamaican youth movement that included anyone against “the system.” They were the main patrons of rock steady.

Front 51

Jimmy Cliff

Back 51

Jamaican musician who popularized reggae music in the United States in the 1970s through his starring role in the Jamaican film The Harder they Come and its soundtrack.

Front 52

Bob Marley

Back 52

The leader of the Wailers and a national hero in his native Jamaica, Marley was reggae’s most effective international ambassador. His songs of determination, rebellion, and faith, rooted in the Rastafarian belief system, found a worldwide audience that reached from America to Japan and from Europe to Africa.

Front 53

The Velvet Underground

Back 53

A New York group promoted by the pop art superstar Andy Warhol. Their music was rough-edged and chaotic, extremely loud, and deliberately anticommercial. The lyrics of their songs focused on topics such as sexual deviancy, drug addiction, violence, and social alienation.

Front 54

The Stooges

Back 54

Formed in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1967, the Stooges were the working-class, motorcycle-riding, leather-jacketed ancestors of punk rock. The lead singer of the Stooges, Iggy Stooge (a.k.a. Iggy Pop, James Osterburg), was famous for his outrageous stage performances, which included flinging himself into the crowd, cutting himself with beer bottles, and rubbing himself with raw meat.

Front 55

The New York Dolls

Back 55

Formed in New York City in 1971, they dressed in fishnet stockings, bright red lipstick, cellophane tutus, ostrich feathers, and army boots. The all-male Dolls were an American response to the English glam rock movement.

Front 56

Patti Smith

Back 56

The first rock musician to perform regularly at CBGBs. She was a New York–based poet, journalist, and singer who had been experimenting with combining the spoken word with rock

Front 57

CBGB & OMFUG (Country, Bluegrass, Blues & Other Music for Urban Gourmandizers)

Back 57

Converted folk music club in the Bowery area of Manhattan. It became the home to many pioneers of punk music, including Patti Smith, the Talking Heads, and the Ramones.

Front 58

The Ramones

Back 58

The first punk rock band. Formed in 1974 in New York City, the Ramones’ high-speed, energetic, and extremely loud sound influenced English punk groups such as the Sex Pistols and the Clash and also became a blueprint for 1980s L.A. hardcore bands. Although they projected a street-tough image, all of the band’s members were from middle-class families in the New York City borough of Queens.

Front 59

The Sex Pistols

Back 59

The most outrageous—and therefore famous—punk band, formed in 1975 in London. They were the creation of Malcolm McAllen, owner of a London boutique called Sex, which specialized in leather and rubber clothing.

Front 60

David Byrne

Back 60

Born in Scotland, Byrne was the leader of the new wave band the Talking Heads. He is known for his trembling, high-pitched voice and his eclectic songwriting.

Front 61

Sly Stone

Back 61

Born in Dallas, moved to San Francisco with his family in the 1950s. Stone gradually developed a style that reflected his own diverse musical experience, a blend of jazz, soul music, San Francisco psychedelia, and the socially engaged lyrics of folk rock.

Front 62

George Clinton

Back 62

The leader of two groups, Parliament and Funkadelic. Clinton’s style of funk music included a mixture of compelling polyrhythms, psychedelic guitar solos, jazz-influenced horn arrangements, and R&B vocal harmonies.

Front 63

Kool Herc

Back 63

Born in Jamaica, immigrated to New York City at age twelve. Herc was one of the pioneering celebrities of hip-hop in the 1970s.

Front 64

Grandmaster Flash

Back 64

DJ and leader of the furious five, he developed many of the turntable techniques that characterized early hip-hop music

Front 65

Afrika Bambaataa

Back 65

Pioneering hip-hop DJ from the Bronx; his song “Planet Rock” was Number Four R&B and Number Forty-eight pop in 1982.

Front 66

Sugarhill Gang

Back 66

Harlem-based crew who recorded the first rap hit, “Rapper’s Delight.” The record reached Number Four on the R&B charts and Number Thirty-six on the pop charts and introduced hip-hop to millions of people throughout the United States and abroad. The unexpected success of “Rapper’s Delight” ushered in a series of million-selling twelve-inch singles by New York rappers.

Front 67

MTV (Music Television)

Back 67

Founded in 1981, MTV changed the way the industry operated, rapidly becoming the preferred method for launching a new act or promoting a superstar’s latest release

Front 68

Kenny Rogers

Back 68

Veteran of folk pop groups such as the New Christy Minstrels and the First Edition, star of made-for-TV movies. One of the main beneficiaries of country pop’s increasing mainstream appeal.

Front 69

Lionel Richie

Back 69

Former member of a vocal R&B group called the Commodores. African American singer and songwriter whose career overarches conventional genre boundaries. Although his big hits of the 1980s were soul-tinged variants of adult contemporary music, Richie also placed two singles in the country Top 40 during the 1980s.

Front 70

Eurythmics

Back 70

Consisted of a core of only two musicians—the singer Annie Lennox (b. 1954 in Scotland) and the keyboardist and technical whiz Dave Stewart (b. 1952 in England). Eurythmics’ first chart appearance in the United States came with the release of their second album, Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This),in 1983.

Front 71

Tina Turner

Back 71

Made her recording debut in 1960 as a member of the Ike and Tina Turner Revue. In 1983 she was offered a contract by Capitol Records. Her first album, entitled Private Dancer (1984), reached Number Three on the album charts.

Front 72

Eddie Van Halen

Back 72

Widely recognized as a primary innovator in electric guitar performance. He was the guitarist for the heavy metal group Van Halen and contributed the stinging guitar solo on “Beat It” from Michael Jackson’s 1982 album Thriller.

Front 73

Peter Gabriel

Back 73

Achieved celebrity as a member of the art rock group Genesis before embarking on a solo career. Gabriel’s best-selling single “Sledgehammer” became Number One pop and Number Sixty-one R&B in 1986. The award-winning video version of “Sledgehammer” was an eye-catching, witty, and technically innovative work that pushed the frontiers of the medium.

Front 74

Michael Jackson

Back 74

Began his performing career as a member of the Jackson Five. He achieved unprecedented success with his 1982 album Thriller,and his elaborately produced music videos helped boost the new medium of music videos. Jackson became the first African American artist to be programmed with any degree of frequency on MTV.

Front 75

Bruce Springsteen

Back 75

Springsteen’s music and personal image evoked the rebellious rock ’n’ rollers of the 1950s and the socially conscious folk rockers of the 1960s. His songs reflected his working-class origins and sympathies.

Front 76

Paul Simon

Back 76

Got his start in the 1960s as a member of the famous folk rock duo Simon and Garfunkel. His album Graceland (1986) was a global collaboration recorded in South Africa, England, and the United States. It is the album responsible, more than any other, for introducing a wide audience to the idea of world music.

Front 77

Ladysmith Black Mambazo

Back 77

South African vocal group that collaborated with Paul Simon on his 1986 album Graceland.

Front 78

Madonna

Back 78

From the late 1980s through the 1990s, Madonna’s popularity was second only to Michael Jackson’s. She created controversial songs and music videos, including “Papa Don’t Preach” (1986), “Express Yourself” (1989), and “Like a Prayer” (1989).

Front 79

Prince

Back 79

Prince is one of the most talented musicians ever to achieve mass commercial success in the field of popular music. He has sold almost forty million recordings. Between 1982 and 1992, he placed nine albums in the Top 10, reaching the top of the charts with three of them (Purple Rain in 1984, Around the World in a Day in 1985, and Batman in 1989).

Front 80

Run-D.M.C.

Back 80

Trio consisting of the MCs Run (Joseph Simmons, b. 1964) and D.M.C. (Darryl McDaniels, b. 1964), and the DJ Jam Master Jay (Jason Mizell, b. 1965). Perhaps the most influential act in the history of rap music, they established a hard-edged, rock-tinged style that shaped the sound and sensibility of later rap music. Their raps were literate and rhythmically skilled, with Run and D.M.C. weaving their phrases together and sometimes even completing the last few words of each other’s lines.

Front 81

Beastie Boys

Back 81

The first commercially successful white act in hip-hop. Their early recordings represent a fusion of the youth-oriented rebelliousness of hardcore punk rock—the style they began playing in 1981—with the sensibility and techniques of hip-hop.

Front 82

Def Jam

Back 82

Co-founded in 1984 by the hip-hop promoter Russell Simmons and the musician-producer Rick Rubin. During the 1980s, Def Jam cross-promoted a new generation of artists, expanding and diversifying the national audience for hip-hop, and in 1986 became the first rap-oriented independent label to sign a distribution deal with one of the “Big Five” record companies, Columbia Records.

Front 83

Public Enemy

Back 83

Founded in 1982, Public Enemy was organized around a core set of members who met as college students, drawn together by their interest in hip-hop culture and political activism. The group included the standard hip-hop configuration of two MCs—Chuck D (a.k.a. Carlton Ridenhour, b. 1960) and Flavor Flav (William Drayton, b. 1959)—plus a DJ—Terminator X (Norman Lee Rogers, b. 1966). It was augmented by a “Minister of Information” (Professor Griff, a.k.a. Richard Griffin) and by the Security of the First World (S1W), a cohort of dancers who dressed in paramilitary uniforms, carried Uzi submachine guns, and performed martial arts–inspired choreography.

Front 84

M.C. Hammer

Back 84

Rapper from Oakland, California; hit the charts in 1990 with Please Hammer Don’t Hurt ’Em,which held the Number One position for twenty-one weeks and sold over ten million copies, becoming the bestselling rap album of all time.

Front 85

Vanilla Ice

Back 85

Ice’s first album, To the Extreme (1990), monopolized the Number One position for sixteen weeks in early 1991, selling seven million copies. When it was discovered that Van Winkle, raised in reasonably comfortable circumstances in a middle-class neighborhood, had essentially invented a gangster persona for himself, many fans turned their backs on him.

Front 86

Ice-T (Tracy Marrow)

Back 86

Marrow):


In 1987, he recorded the theme song for Colors, Dennis Hopper’s violent film about gang-versus-police warfare in South Central Los Angeles. Both the film and Ice-T’s raps reflected ongoing changes in southern California’s urban communities, including a decline in industrial production, rising rates of joblessness, the continuing effects of crack cocaine, and a concomitant growth of drug-related gang violence.

Front 87

Ani DiFranco

Back 87

A folk singer dressed in punk rock clothing, DiFranco has spent her career resisting the lure of the corporate music business, releasing an album and playing upward of two hundred live dates every year, and building up a successful independent record label (Righteous Babe Records) and a substantial grassroots following.

Front 88

Lauryn Hill

Back 88

Hip-hop artist whose work is a self-conscious alternative to the violence and sexism in the work of rap stars such as Dr. Dre, the Notorious B.I.G., and 2Pac Shakur. Her commitment to female empowerment builds on the ground-breaking example of Queen Latifah, but Hill raps and sings in her own distinctive voice.

Front 89

k.d. lang

Back 89

Has always occupied a marginal position in the conservative world of country music. She began her career in 1982 as a Patsy Cline imitator, going so far as to christen her band the Reclines. lang never sat quite right with the Nashville establishment, who found her campy outfits (rhinestone suits and cat-eye glasses) and somewhat androgynous image off-putting.

Front 90

Ralph Stanley

Back 90

Veteran of bluegrass music who was featured on the movie soundtrack for the Coen Brothers’ film O Brother, Where Art Thou? He and his brother Carter (1925–66) performed as the Stanley Brothers beginning in 1946 and produced a body of outstanding bluegrass recordings. After his brother’s death, Ralph Stanley continued his own career as the leader of the Clinch Mountain Boys.

Front 91

Alison Krauss

Back 91

A fiddling champion and bluegrass fan by age twelve, Krauss quickly went on to establish her credentials as a bandleader, vocalist, and producer, and as a valuable collaborator on numerous recordings by other artists. Her fine albums with her band Union Station demonstrate both her close connections to traditional bluegrass and her interest in creating a distinctive and original development of those connections.

Front 92

King Sunny Adé

Back 92

Guitarist and leader of the Nigerian group the African Beats, whose 1982 album Juju Music sold over 100,000 copies and rose to Number 111 on Billboard’s album chart.

Front 93

Ry Cooder

Back 93

Singer and guitarist who produced Talking Timbuktu,which won the Grammy for Best World Music Recording in 1994. His career as a session musician and bandleader encompassed a wide array of styles, including blues, reggae, Tex-Mex music, urban folk song, Hawai’ian guitar music, Dixieland jazz, and gospel music.

Front 94

Ali Farka Touré

Back 94

Guitarist and traditional praise singer (griot) from the West African nation of Mali. Touré’s style was directly influenced by American blues musicians such as John Lee Hooker, whose records he discovered after his career was established in Africa.

Front 95

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan

Back 95

Pakistani musician and a leading performer of qawwali, a genre of mystical singing practiced by Sufi Muslims in Pakistan and India. During the 1990s, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan became the first qawwali artist to command a large international following.

Front 96

Alesis ADAT

Back 96

Recording system introduced in 1992 that consisted of an eight-track digital synthesizer/recorder that could be expanded to 128 tracks with the addition of units. With the ADAT, consumers could set up basic home studios inexpensively, while professionals could use the same technology to build highly sophisticated digital sound facilities.

Front 97

Pro-Tools

Back 97

Music software program designed to run on personal computers. This software enabled recording engineers and musicians to gain even more control over every parameter of musical sound, including not only pitch and tempo but also the quality of a singer’s voice or an instrumentalist’s timbre.

Front 98

Clear Channel

Back 98

Publicly traded corporation that owns more than 1,200 radio stations, 39 television stations, 100,000 advertising billboards, and 100 live performance venues, ranging from huge amphitheaters to dance clubs, enabling them to present more than 70 percent of all live events nationwide.

Front 99

Napster

Back 99

Internet-based software program that enabled computer users to share and swap files, specifically music, through a centralized file server. A federal court injunction forced Napster to shut down operations in February 2001.

Front 100

Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)

Back 100

Trade association whose member companies— Universal, Sony, Warner Brothers, Arista, Atlantic, BMG, RCA, Capitol, Elektra, Interscope, and Sire Records—control the sale and distribution of approximately 90 percent of the offline music in the United States