Mt 2 Vocab Nervous And Respiratory System

Front 1

upper respiratory system

Back 1

above larynx

Front 2

lower respiratory system

Back 2

below larynx

Front 3

conducting portion

Back 3

from nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles

Front 4

respiratory portion

Back 4

respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

Front 5

alveoli

Back 5

air filled pockets within lungs for gas exchange

Front 6

pulmonary ventilation

Back 6

air movement in and out of lungs

Front 7

external respiration

Back 7

gas exchange between blood and air at lungs' alveoli

Front 8

internal respiration

Back 8

gas exchange between blood and tissue cells

Front 9

respiratory epithelium

Back 9

for efficient gas exchange; very thin and high surface area

Front 10

respiratory mucosa

Back 10

epithelial layer that lines conducting portion of respiratory system

Front 11

lamina propria

Back 11

underlying layer of areolar tissue that supports the respiratory epithelium; include mucous glands and smooth muscle

Front 12

nasal hairs

Back 12

first part of filtration system found in nasal vestibule

Front 13

nasal cavity

Back 13

clean and moistened by paranasal sinuses and tears that secrete mucous; has the olfactory region in the superior portion; separated by nasal septum

Front 14

nasal septum

Back 14

separates the nasal cavity into left and right

Front 15

hard palate

Back 15

forms floor of nasal cavity, separates nasal and oral cavities

Front 16

soft palate

Back 16

extends posterior to hard palate, divides superior nasopharynx from lower pharynx

Front 17

nasal mucosa

Back 17

functions to warm and humidify air for arrival at lower respiratory organs

Front 18

pharynx

Back 18

chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems; extends from internal nares to entrances to larynx and esophagus

Front 19

nasopharynx

Back 19

superior portion of pharynx, contains pharyngeal tonsils and openings to left and right auditory tubes

Front 20

oropharynx

Back 20

middle portion of pharynx that communicates with oral cavity

Front 21

laryngopharynx

Back 21

inferior portion of pharynx that extends from hyoid bone to entrance of larynx and esophagus

Front 22

thyroid cartilage

Back 22

Adam's apple; hyaline cartilage that forms anterior and lateral walls of larynx

Front 23

cricoid cartilage

Back 23

hyaline cartilage that forms posterior larynx

Front 24

epiglottis

Back 24

elastic cartilage that prevents entrance of bolus into respiratory tract

Front 25

vestibular ligaments

Back 25

lie within vestibular folds to protect vocal folds

Front 26

phonation

Back 26

sound production at the larynx

Front 27

articulation

Back 27

modification of sound by other structures

Front 28

trachea

Back 28

aka windpipe that extends from the cricoid cartilage into mediastinum; surrounded by cartilaginous disks

Front 29

extrapulmonary bronchi

Back 29

branches outside the lungs

Front 30

intrapulmonary bronchi

Back 30

branches within the lungs

Front 31

carina

Back 31

where the trachea bifrucates and split into primary bronchi

Front 32

primary bronchus

Back 32

one that goes into each lung branching off from trachea at the carina

Front 33

hilum

Back 33

where pulmonary nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics enter a groove into an organ, anchored by connective tissue

Front 34

root of lung

Back 34

complex of connective tissue, nerves, and vessels in hilum

Front 35

base of lungs

Back 35

inferior portion of each lungs rest on superior of diaphragm

Front 36

secondary bronchus

Back 36

aka lobar bronchii; branch that comes off the primary bronchus

Front 37

bronchitis

Back 37

inflammation of bronchial walls causing constriction and breathing difficulty

Front 38

bronchiole

Back 38

has no cartilage and is dominated by smooth muscle

Front 39

bronchiodialation

Back 39

dilation of bronchial airways by sympathetic autonomic nervous system activation, reduces resistance

Front 40

bronchiolconstriction

Back 40

constricts bronchioles by histamine release

Front 41

asthma

Back 41

excessive stimulation and bronchioconstriction that restricts airflow

Front 42

pulmonary surfactant

Back 42

oily secretion of phospholipids and proteins that decreases alveolar surface tension allowing the lungs to expand

Front 43

respiratory distress

Back 43

difficult respiration due to alveolar collapse when pneumocytes do not produce enough surfactant

Front 44

pneumonia

Back 44

inflammation of lobules causing fluid to leak into alveoli compromising the function of the respiratory membrane

Front 45

high altitude pulmonary edema

Back 45

results from a high blood pressure in the lungs causing smooth muscle to constrict causing leakage in the lungs; tolerability and symptoms varies from person to person due to their fitness, acclimation, and genetics

Front 46

pleural fluid

Back 46

lubricates space between parietal and visceral pleura surrounding lungs

Front 47

atmospheric pressure

Back 47

weight of air that drives oxygen into lungs

Front 48

respiratory cycle

Back 48

cyclical changes in interapleural pressure operate the respiratory pump

Front 49

tidal volume

Back 49

amount of air moved in and out of lungs in a single respiratory cycle

Front 50

pnemothorax

Back 50

injury to chest wall that allows air into pleural cavity

Front 51

alelectasis

Back 51

aka collapsed lung; result of pnemothorax

Front 52

quiet breathing

Back 52

eupena, involves active inhalation and passive exhalation

Front 53

deep breathing

Back 53

use of diaphragm

Front 54

shallow breathing

Back 54

use of rib cage

Front 55

elastic rebound

Back 55

occurs when inhalation muscles relax allowing muscles and lungs to recoil returning body to original position

Front 56

hyperpnea

Back 56

aka forced breathing that involves active inhalation and exhalation; maximum levels occur in exhaustion

Front 57

respiratory minute volume

Back 57

amount of air moved per minute to measure pulmonary ventilation

Front 58

alveolar ventilation

Back 58

amount of air reaching alveoli each minute; calculated as [(tidal volume) - (anatomic dead space)] times (respiratory rate)

Front 59

anatomic dead space

Back 59

volume of air remaining in conducting passages that does not reach alveoli

Front 60

sudden infant death syndrome

Back 60

SIDS, may result from connection problems between pacemaker complex and respiratory center

Front 61

cranial nerve IX

Back 61

glossopharyngeal nerve that is stimulated by changes in blood pH or the pressure of oxygen

Front 62

cranial nerve X

Back 62

vagus nerve from aortic bodies stimulated by blood pH or pressure of oxygen

Front 63

hypercapnia

Back 63

increase in arterial carbon dioxide pressure that stimulates breathing

Front 64

hypoventilation

Back 64

abnormally low respiration rate

Front 65

hyperventilation

Back 65

excessive breathing that causes low pressures of carbon dioxide which stimulates chemoreceptors to decrease respiratory rate

Front 66

barocepter reflexes

Back 66

affected by blood pressure; when it falls, respiration increases

Front 67

Herring-Breor reflexes

Back 67

involved in forced breathing to prevent over-expansion of lungs

Front 68

protective reflexes

Back 68

triggered by receptors in respiratory tract to cough, sneeze and laryngeal spasm when exposed to chemical irritants and mechanical stimuli

Front 69

apnea

Back 69

suspended respiration followed by explosive exhalation to clear airways by sneezing or coughing

Front 70

laryngeal spasm

Back 70

temporary closure of airways to prevent foreign particles and substances from entering

Front 71

emphysema

Back 71

breakdown of alveolar walls, affects individuals over age 50, dependent on exposure to respiratory irritants such as cigarette smoke

Front 72

nervous system

Back 72

includes all neural tissues in the body, including brain, spinal cord

Front 73

neurons

Back 73

cells that send and receive signals as the functional unit; perform all communication, information processing and control functions of the nervous system

Front 74

neuroglia

Back 74

aka glial cells; cells that support and protect neurons

Front 75

central nervous system

Back 75

brain and spinal cord enclosed in bony coverings

Front 76

peripheral nervous system

Back 76

includes nerves and ganglia

Front 77

nerve

Back 77

bundle of axons in connective tissue for the PNS; examples include spinal and cranial nerves

Front 78

ganglion

Back 78

swelling masses of cell bodies in a nerve surrounded by neuroglia; for the PNS

Front 79

cranial nerves

Back 79

connect to brain

Front 80

spinal nerves

Back 80

exiting spinal cord

Front 81

afferent division

Back 81

sensory; carries sensory information from PNS sensory to CNS

Front 82

visceral motor division

Back 82

has effectors of cardiac, smooth muscle and glands

Front 83

receptors

Back 83

detect changes or responds to stimuli

Front 84

effector

Back 84

responds to efferent signals, organs that carry out responses

Front 85

somatic nervous system

Back 85

controls skeletal muscle contractions

Front 86

autonomic nervous system

Back 86

controls subconscious actions of smooth and cardiac muscles and gradular secretions

Front 87

sympathetic division

Back 87

has a stimulating effect

Front 88

parasympathetic division

Back 88

has a relaxing effect

Front 89

sensory neuron

Back 89

afferent neuron; detects changes in body and external environment; information transmitted into brain or spinal cord

Front 90

interneuron

Back 90

association neurons that integrate information in-between sensory and motor pathways; found in brain, spinal cord, and autonomic ganglia; involved in higher function of memory, planning, and learning

Front 91

motor neuron

Back 91

efferent neuron; sends signals out to muscles and gland cells

Front 92

excitability

Back 92

aka irritability; ability to change and respond to changes in body and stimuli

Front 93

conductivity

Back 93

produce travelling electrical signals

Front 94

secretition

Back 94

release of chemical neurotransmitters when stimulated by an electrical signal

Front 95

soma

Back 95

cell body of neuron that has a single central nucleus with large nucleolus

Front 96

dendrite

Back 96

receive signals and branch off the cell body

Front 97

neurofilaments

Back 97

act as microfilaments

Front 98

neurotubules

Back 98

replacement of microtubules

Front 99

neurofibrils

Back 99

bundles of neurofilmanets that provide support for dendrites and axon

Front 100

Nissel bodies

Back 100

dense areas of RER and ribosomes that make neural tissue appear gray

Front 101

dendrititic spine

Back 101

fine processes on a dendrite that receive information from other neurons; 80-90% of neuron surface area

Front 102

nerve fiber

Back 102

propagates signal to target cell

Front 103

axon hillock

Back 103

where the cell body meets the axon and attaches to initial segment

Front 104

axoplasm

Back 104

cytoplasm of axon that contains neurotubules, neurofibrils, enzymes, and organelles

Front 105

axolemma

Back 105

specialized cell membrane that covers axoplasm

Front 106

multipolar neuron

Back 106

most common in CNS, includes all skeletal muscle motor neurons; many dendrites to one axon

Front 107

bipolar neuron

Back 107

one way directional flow that has one dendrite to one axon; found in olfactory, retina, ear and other special sensory organs

Front 108

unipolar neuron

Back 108

found in sensory neuron of PNS; sensory from skin and organs to spinal cord

Front 109

anaxonic neuron

Back 109

more rare; many dendrites to no axons; help in visual processes and found in brain and senses organs

Front 110

fast anterograde axonal transport

Back 110

moves in either direction up to 400 mm/day for organelles, enzymes, vesicles, and small molecules

Front 111

fast retrograde

Back 111

moves recycled materials and pathogens

Front 112

slow axonal transport

Back 112

aka plasmic flow; moves cytoskeletal and new axoplasmic materials at 10 mm/day during repair and regeneration in damaged axons

Front 113

neuroglia

Back 113

half the volume of the nervous system that preserves physical and biochemical structure of neural tissue and are essential to survival and function of neurons

Front 114

ependymal cells

Back 114

cells with highly branched processes; contact neuroglia directly; form epithelium called ependyma; line central canal and ventricles of the brain to secrete CSF, circulate and monitor CSF, and contains some stem cells for repair

Front 115

cerebral spinal fluid

Back 115

provides nutrients to brain, provides cushion

Front 116

astrocytes

Back 116

large cell bodies with many processes that maintain conditions of central nervous system with cerebral spinal fluid, conversion of glucose to lactate, development of new nerves, and brain blood barrier

Front 117

oligodendrocytes

Back 117

smaller cell bodies that wrap around axons to form myelin sheaths

Front 118

microglia

Back 118

smallest neuroglia that come from monocytes and are found in areas of infection, trauma, or stroke

Front 119

Schwann cells

Back 119

myelinate fibers of PNS

Front 120

satellite cells

Back 120

cells found in neuroglia, but function is unknown

Front 121

myelin

Back 121

insulating layer around a nerve fiber; composed of 20% protein and 80% lipids; white matter

Front 122

nodes of ranvier

Back 122

gaps between myelin segments

Front 123

initial segment

Back 123

area between first Schwann cell

Front 124

trigger zone

Back 124

area between initial segment and axon hillock where signal begins

Front 125

slow signals

Back 125

provide information to stomached and dilate pupil

Front 126

fast signals

Back 126

supply skeletal muscles and transport sensory signals for vision and balance

Front 127

presynaptic neuron

Back 127

first neuron that releases neurotransmitters to stimulate the second neuron

Front 128

postsynaptic neuron

Back 128

second neuron that receives neurotransmitters to start action potential and responds

Front 129

synaptic cleft

Back 129

gap between presynaptic membrane and post synaptic membrane

Front 130

synaptic knob

Back 130

expanded area of axon of presynaptic neuron that releases neurotransmitters

Front 131

synaptic vesicles

Back 131

storage area in neurons for neurotransmitters

Front 132

neurotransmitters

Back 132

chemical messengers that are released at the presynaptic membrane to affect receptors at the post synaptic membrane; broken down by enzymes and reassembled at synaptic knob

Front 133

electrical synapse

Back 133

direct physical contact between cells locked by gap junctions; allow ions to pass between cells and are found in brain, eye, and ciliary ganglia

Front 134

chemical synapse

Back 134

signal transmitted across a gap by chemical neurotransmitters; found in most synapses between neurons; cells are not in direct contract

Front 135

neuromuscular junction

Back 135

synapse between neuron and muscle

Front 136

neuroglandular junction

Back 136

synapse between neuron and gland

Front 137

connexons

Back 137

gap junctions that interlock electrical synapses

Front 138

excitatory neurotransmitter

Back 138

causes depolarization of post synaptic membranes and promotes action potentials

Front 139

inhibitory neurotransmitter

Back 139

cause hyperpolarization of post synaptic membranes; suppresses action potentials

Front 140

cholinergic synapse

Back 140

any synapse that releases acetylcholine

Front 141

acetylcholine

Back 141

a neurotransmitter that usually promotes action potentials; inhib8its at neuromuscular junctions

Front 142

axodendritic synapse

Back 142

axon connects to dendrite

Front 143

axosomatic synapse

Back 143

axon connects directly to soma

Front 144

axoaxonic synapse

Back 144

axon connects to another axon

Front 145

neuromodulator

Back 145

other chemicals released by synaptic knob that are long term, have multiple steps, may act with or without a neurotransmitter

Front 146

norepinephrine

Back 146

released by adrenergic synapses as a an excitatory and depolarizing effect; widely distributed in brain and portions of autonomic nerve system

Front 147

dopamine

Back 147

CNS neurotransmitter that may be excitatory or inhibitory; involved in Parkinson's disease or cocaine use

Front 148

serotonin

Back 148

CNS neurotransmitter that affects attention and emotional states

Front 149

Gama aminobutyric acid

Back 149

inhibitory effect, function is not well known

Front 150

monoamines

Back 150

synthesized by replacing amino acids with another functional group, includes catecholamine and indolamines

Front 151

catecholamines

Back 151

epi, NE, and dopamine

Front 152

indolamines

Back 152

serotonin and histamine

Front 153

neuropeptides

Back 153

chains of 2-40 amino acids that are stored in secretory granules called dense core vesicles; act at lower concentrations and have longer lasting effects; some released from non-neural tissue and may function as hormones

Front 154

neural pool

Back 154

interneurons that share specific body function

Front 155

discharge zone

Back 155

single cell can produce firing

Front 156

facilitated zone

Back 156

single cell can only make it easier for a post synaptic cell to fire

Front 157

diverging circuit

Back 157

one input, lots of outputs; found in stretch reflex

Front 158

converging circuit

Back 158

input from many fibers to one neuron

Front 159

reverberating circuits

Back 159

neurons stimulate each other in linear sequence but one cell restimulates the first cell to start the process over

Front 160

parallel after discharge circuit

Back 160

higher order pathway that has input neurons that undergo several pathways and continues stimulation after initial input firing has ceased

Front 161

engram

Back 161

aka memory trace; physical basis of memory as a synaptic pathway

Front 162

immediate memory

Back 162

ability to hold something in thoughts for a few seconds; used in reading, sense of present; uses reverberating circuits

Front 163

short term memory

Back 163

lasts from a few seconds to a few hours; uses reverberating circuits; facilitation makes memory retention easier

Front 164

tetanic stimulation

Back 164

rapid repetitive signals that cause calcium to build up increasing likelihood of firing neuron; used as part of facilitation

Front 165

post-tetanic potentiation

Back 165

jogging memory; calcium levels in synaptic knob remain elevated; little stimulation required for memory recovery

Front 166

declarative long term memory

Back 166

retention of facts as text

Front 167

procedural long term memory

Back 167

retention of motor skills

Front 168

long term memory

Back 168

physical remodeling of synapses with new branches of axons or dendrites; molecular changes for the long term such as more neurotransmitter receptors, more proteins, nitric oxide, and more neurotransmitters

Front 169

Alzheimer's disease

Back 169

memory loss for recent events, moody and combative, loss of ability to walk, talk, or eat; diagnosis confirmed at autopsy by atrophy of gyri in cerebral cortex, presence of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques; also degeneration of cholinergic neurons, deficiency of ACh and nerve growth factor

Front 170

Parkinson's disease

Back 170

chronic and progressive degenerative disease of brain that impairs motor control, speech, and other functions; degeneration of dopamine releasing neurons; involuntary muscle contractions like pill rolling motion, facial rigidity, slurred speech, illegible handwriting, and slow gait; treated by dopamine precursors, MAO inhibitor to slow neural degeneration, or surgical techniques, usually drugs and physical therapy

Front 171

rabies

Back 171

retrograde flow from the bite of an animal that moves into peripheral tissues; from there, virus enters synaptic knobs and peripheral axons, then moves to CNS and is then fatal

Front 172

primary tumor

Back 172

75% of tumors; originate in CNS; in adults results from division of abnormal neuroglia; children receive tumors from division of stem cells until age 4

Front 173

secondary tumor

Back 173

tumor that originates from metastasis of cancer cells that originate elsewhere

Front 174

tumor

Back 174

abnormal growth of tissue with various symptoms depending on location; treated with radiation, surgery, or a combination of the two

Front 175

medullary cone

Back 175

aka conus medullaris; tapered end tip of spinal cord

Front 176

cauda equina

Back 176

from L2 to S5 nerve; roots resemble horse's tail

Front 177

enlargement

Back 177

amounts of gray matter in segments involved with sensory and motor nerves of limbs

Front 178

cervical enlargement

Back 178

nerves of shoulder and upper limbs

Front 179

lumbar enlargement

Back 179

nerves of pelvis and lower limbs

Front 180

denticulate ligaments

Back 180

stabilize spinal cord from side to side; extend from pia mater to dura mater

Front 181

ventral root

Back 181

contains axons of motor neurons

Front 182

dorsal root

Back 182

contains axons of sensory neurons

Front 183

dorsal root ganglia

Back 183

contains cell bodies of sensory neurons

Front 184

spinal nerves

Back 184

where dorsal and ventral roots join

Front 185

mixed nerve

Back 185

a nerve that carries both afferent and efferent fibers

Front 186

spinal meninges

Back 186

specialized protective membranes that isolate spinal cord from surroundings

Front 187

meningitis

Back 187

viral or bacterial infections of meninges causing inflammation; creates symptoms of neck problems, fatigue, and high fever

Front 188

dura mater

Back 188

tough collagenous membrane surround by epidural space, filled with fat and blood vessels

Front 189

arachnoid mater

Back 189

layer of simple squamous epithelium lining dura mater and loose mesh of fibers filled with cerebral spinal fluid

Front 190

pia mater

Back 190

delicate membrane adherent to spinal cord; filium terminale and denticulate ligaments anchor the spinal cord

Front 191

spina bifida

Back 191

failure of vertebral arch to close covering spinal cord; folic acid consumption for mother decreases risk; congenital defect in 1 baby out of 1000

Front 192

gray matter

Back 192

neuron cell bodies with little myelin; area of integration and command initiation; organized into nuclei

Front 193

white matter

Back 193

myelinated axons that carry information from place to place; organized into columns

Front 194

white columns

Back 194

aka funiculi; bundles of myelinated axons that carry signals up and down to and from brainstem

Front 195

tracts

Back 195

aka fasciculi; fibers with similar origin, destination, and function; found in the CNS; bundles of axons

Front 196

nuclei

Back 196

functional groups of gray matter as a collection of cell bodies in the CNS, specifically deep in the brain

Front 197

poliomyelitis

Back 197

caused by polio virus spread by fecally contaminated water; weakness progresses to paralysis and respiratory arrest; destruction of motor neurons and skeletal muscle atrophy

Front 198

amylotrophic lateral sclerosis

Back 198

aka Lou Gehrig's disease; sclerosis of spinal cord due to astrocyte failure to reabsorb glutamate neurotransmitters; leads to paralysis and muscle atrophy; not infectious

Front 199

epineurium

Back 199

outer layer that covers nerves; dense network of collagen fibers

Front 200

perineurium

Back 200

middle layer that surrounds fascicle; divides nerves into fascicles; blood vessels penetrate only to perineurium

Front 201

endoneurium

Back 201

inner layer that separates individual nerve fibers surrounds individual axons

Front 202

dorsal ramus

Back 202

contains somatic and visceral motor fibers, innervates the back

Front 203

ventral ramus

Back 203

larger branch, innervates ventrolateral structures and limbs

Front 204

interoceptors

Back 204

sense internal environment

Front 205

exteroceptors

Back 205

sense external environment

Front 206

proprioreceptors

Back 206

senses body position in space, found in joints, used to detect movement

Front 207

dermatome

Back 207

bilateral region of skin monitored by specific pair of spinal nerves

Front 208

peripheral neuropathy

Back 208

regional loss of sensory or motor function causing pain and numbness in hands and feet; caused by trauma, compression, infections, metabolic problems, and exposure to toxins; treated with medication and symptoms improves over time

Front 209

shingles

Back 209

skin eruptions along path of nerve caused by varicella-zoster virus that remains for life in dorsal root ganglia; occurs after age 50 if immune system is compromised; no special treatment

Front 210

nerves plexus

Back 210

complex interwoven network of nerve fibers formed from blended fibers of ventral rami of adjacent spinal nerves; controls skeletal muscles of neck and limbs

Front 211

cervical plexus

Back 211

includes ventral rami of spinal nerves C1-C5; innervates neck, thoracic cavity, and diaphragmatic muscles

Front 212

brachial plexus

Back 212

includes ventral rami of spinal nerves C5-T1; innervates pectoral girdles and upper limbs

Front 213

lumbar plexus

Back 213

includes ventral rami of spinal nerves T12-L4

Front 214

sacral plexus

Back 214

includes ventral rami of spinal nerves L4-S5

Front 215

sciatica

Back 215

disturbance of sciatic nerve causing shooting pains down leg

Front 216

innate reflexes

Back 216

basic neural reflexes, formed before birth

Front 217

acquired reflexes

Back 217

rapid automatic reflexes, learned motor patterns

Front 218

somatic reflexes

Back 218

involuntary control of nervous system such as superficial reflexes of skin, mucous membranes, and stretch or deep tendon reflexes

Front 219

visceral reflexes

Back 219

autonomic reflexes that control systems other than muscular system

Front 220

monosynaptic reflex

Back 220

sensory neuron synapses directly onto motor neuron

Front 221

polysynaptic reflex

Back 221

at least interneuron between sensory and motor neuron

Front 222

spinal reflex

Back 222

reflex occurs in spinal cord

Front 223

cranial reflex

Back 223

reflex occurs in brain

Front 224

muscle spindles

Back 224

bundles of small specialized interfusal muscle fibers innervated by sensory and motor neurons surrounded by extrafusal muscle fibers that maintain tone and contract muscles

Front 225

postural reflexes

Back 225

stretch reflex that maintains normal upright posture where a stretched muscle responds by contracting automatically maintaining balance

Front 226

tendon reflex

Back 226

prevents skeletal muscles from developing too much tension and breaking tendons

Front 227

withdrawal reflex

Back 227

move body part away from pain or pressure stimulus; strength and extent of response dependent on intensity and location of stimulus

Front 228

flexor reflex

Back 228

polysynaptic reflex arc; neural circuitry in spinal cord controls sequence and duration of muscle contractions

Front 229

ipsilateral reflex arc

Back 229

stretch, tendon, and withdrawal reflex occurs on the same side of body as stimulus

Front 230

contralateral reflex arc

Back 230

reflex arc where response occurs on the opposite side of the stimulus

Front 231

Babinski reflex

Back 231

stroking the soles of the foot; normal for infants, may indicate CNS damage in adults

Front 232

spinal cord trauma

Back 232

occurs in traffic accidents, leads to paralysis, poses risk of respiratory failure, spinal shock, post-traumatic infarction

Front 233

neurological assessment

Back 233

evaluates mental status, cranial nerve function, sensory function, reflex function, autonomic status, and cerebral vasculature by looking at special senses, general senses, motor function, deep tendon reflexes, and level of consciousness

Front 234

cerebellum

Back 234

muscle coordination; coordinates somatic motor process; contains 50% of the neurons; connected to brainstem by peduncles; work at evaluating sensory input, timekeeping, pitch and planning tasks

Front 235

cerebrum

Back 235

conscious thought processes; intellectual functions; memory storage and processing; 83% of brain volume; composed of four lobes

Front 236

diencephalon

Back 236

composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus

Front 237

thalamus

Back 237

relay and process centers for sensory information from cerebellum to motor cortex; emotion and memory function

Front 238

hypothalamus

Back 238

centers controlling emotions, autonomic functions and hormone production, such as autonomic NS, thermoregulation, food and water intake, sleep and circadian rhythms, and memory

Front 239

mesencephalon

Back 239

processing of visual and auditory data, generate somatic motor reflexes, maintains consciousness

Front 240

pons

Back 240

relays sensory information to cerebellum and thalamus, subconscious motor centers like posture, sleeping, hearing, balance, taste, ye movements, facial expression, facial sensation, respiration, swallowing, and bladder control; bulge in brainstem

Front 241

medulla oblongata

Back 241

relays sensory information to thalamus and brain stem, autonomic centers for visceral functions such as cardiac centers, vasomotor centers, respiratory centers, and reflex centers

Front 242

rostral

Back 242

towards the forehead

Front 243

caudal

Back 243

towards the spinal cord

Front 244

gyri

Back 244

folds and protrusions of the brain

Front 245

sulci

Back 245

grooves of the brain

Front 246

cortex

Back 246

surface layer of gray matter of the brain

Front 247

epidural hemorrhage

Back 247

blood forced between dura mater and cranium

Front 248

subdural hemorrhage

Back 248

more common to occur; blood forced between dura and arachnoid mater; gradual, variable, hard to diagnose

Front 249

choroid plexus

Back 249

produces cerebral spinal fluid

Front 250

blood brain barrier

Back 250

isolates CNS from general circulation by using tight junctions; prevents diffusion of materials between endothelial cells; allows only small lipid soluble materials like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nicotine and anesthetics through

Front 251

blood-CSF barrier

Back 251

prevents free access of substances to CNS; found at the choroid plexus using tight junctions

Front 252

superior peduncle

Back 252

output to midbrain, thalamus, and cortex

Front 253

middle peduncle

Back 253

input from cerebral cortex and inner ear

Front 254

inferior peduncle

Back 254

spinocerebellar tracts for proprioception

Front 255

tegmentum

Back 255

connects to cerebellum and helps control fine movements through red nucleus

Front 256

substantia nigra

Back 256

sends inhibitory signals to basal ganglia and thalamus

Front 257

central gray matter

Back 257

responsible for pain awareness

Front 258

superior colliculus

Back 258

tracks moving objects, blinking, pupillary and head turning reflexes

Front 259

inferior colliculus

Back 259

reflex of turning head to sounds

Front 260

reticular formation

Back 260

clusters of gray matter scattered throughout pons, midbrain, and medulla; regulate balance and posture, as well as cardiac and vasomotor centers; regulate sleep and conscious attention

Front 261

frontal lobe

Back 261

responsible for voluntary motor functions, planning, mood, smell, and social judgment

Front 262

parietal lobe

Back 262

receives and integrates sensory information, such as touch, pressure, and pain

Front 263

occipital lobe

Back 263

visual center of brain

Front 264

temporal lobe

Back 264

areas for hearing, smelling, learning, memory, and emotional behavior

Front 265

projection tract

Back 265

from brain to spinal cord, forms internal capsule

Front 266

commissural tract

Back 266

cross to opposite hemisphere e.g. corpus callosum and anterior and posterior commisures

Front 267

association tracts

Back 267

connects lobes and gyri within a hemisphere

Front 268

stellate cells

Back 268

cells with dendrites that project in all directions

Front 269

pyramidal cells

Back 269

axons pass out of these areas

Front 270

basal nuclei

Back 270

masses of gray matter deep to cortex; includes caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus

Front 271

limbic system

Back 271

includes amygdala, hippocampus, and cingualte gyrus

Front 272

electroencephalogram

Back 272

records voltage changes from postsynaptic potentials in cerebral cortex

Front 273

alpha wave

Back 273

occurs when awake or resting with eyes closed

Front 274

beta wave

Back 274

eyes open, performing mental tasks, intense concentration

Front 275

theta wave

Back 275

sleep or emotional stress; found in children and frustrated adults

Front 276

delta wave

Back 276

deep sleep wave

Front 277

sleep paralysis

Back 277

inhibition of muscular activity

Front 278

REM sleep

Back 278

rapid eye movement under eyelids; vital signs increase; EEG resembles awake person; dreams and penile erection occur

Front 279

agnosia

Back 279

results from lesion to temporal lobe; causes inability to recognize objects

Front 280

prosopagnosia

Back 280

inability to recognize faces

Front 281

anterograde amnesia

Back 281

no new memories form, usually an issue with the hippocampus

Front 282

retrograde amnesia

Back 282

can't remember old memories

Front 283

hippocampus

Back 283

organizes sensory and cognitive information into a new memory

Front 284

amygdala

Back 284

emotional memory

Front 285

prefrontal cortex

Back 285

controls expression of emotion

Front 286

homunculus

Back 286

map of the brain that shows receptors dedicated to specific parts of the body

Front 287

Wernicke area

Back 287

permits recognition of spoken and written language, creates plans of speech

Front 288

Broca area

Back 288

generates motor signals for larynx, tongue, cheeks, and lips; transmits to primary motor cortex for action

Front 289

cerebral lateralization

Back 289

separation of hemispheres to favor particular skills

Front 290

aphasia

Back 290

language deficit from lesions in same hemisphere as Wernike or Brocca area

Front 291

nonfluent aphasia

Back 291

lesion to Brocca area resulting in slow speech, difficulty in choosing words

Front 292

fluent aphasia

Back 292

lesion to Wernike area resulting in normal and excessive speech, but it makes little sense

Front 293

anomic aphasis

Back 293

speech and understanding are normal, but text and pictures make no sense

Front 294

left hemisphere

Back 294

categorical hemisphere that is specialized for language, sequential and analytical reasoning

Front 295

right hemisphere

Back 295

representational hemisphere for perceiving information more hollistically, perception of spatial relationship, patterns, comparison of special sense, imagination, and insight, music and artistic skills

Front 296

olfactory nerve

Back 296

1 responsible for sense of smell

Front 297

optic nerve

Back 297

2 provides vision and damage causes blindness in visual field

Front 298

oculomotor nerve

Back 298

3 responsible for eye movement, opening of eyelid, constriction of pupil and focusing; damage causes drooping eyelid, dilated pupils, double vision, difficulty in focusing, and inability to move eyes in certain directions

Front 299

trochlear nerve

Back 299

4 eye movement of the superior oblique muscle; damage causes double vision and inability to rotate eye inferiorly

Front 300

trigeminal nerve

Back 300

5 sensory to face, such as touch, pain, and temperature, and muscles of mastication; damage produces loss of sensation and impaired chewing

Front 301

abducens nerve

Back 301

6 produces eye movement via lateral rectus muscle; damage results in inability to rotate eye laterally

Front 302

facial nerve

Back 302

7 motor - facial expressions, salivary glands, tears, nasal and palatine glands; sensory - taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue; damage produces sagging facial muscles and disturbed sense of taste (no sweet and salty)

Front 303

vestibulocochlear nerve

Back 303

8 provides hearing and sense of balance; damage produces deafness, dizziness, nausea, and loss of balance

Front 304

glossopharyneal nerve

Back 304

9 responsible for swallowing, salivation, gagging, control of blood pressure, and respiration; also sense 1/3 of tongue; damage results in loss of bitter and sour taste and impaired swallowing

Front 305

vagus nerve

Back 305

10 travels from cranium to many viscera such as lungs, heart, liver, stomach, spleen, kidney, and intestines; responsible for swallowing, speech, and regulation of viscera; damage causes hoarseness or loss of voice, impaired swallowing and can be fatal if both nerves are cut

Front 306

accessory nerve

Back 306

11 swallowing, head, neck, and shoulder movement; damage causes impaired head, neck, shoulder movement; head turns toward injured side

Front 307

hypoglossal nerve

Back 307

12 tongue movements for speech, food manipulation and swallowing; if both are damaged - can't protrude tongue

Front 308

trigeminal neuraglia

Back 308

aka tic doulereux; recurring episodes of intense stabbing pain in trigeminal area such as the mouth or nose; pain triggered by touch, drinking, or washing face; treatment may require cutting nerve

Front 309

bell's palsy

Back 309

disorder of facial nerve causes paralysis of facial muscles on one side; may appear abruptly with full recovery within 3-5 weeks

Front 310

preganglionic fibers

Back 310

in brain and spinal cord, axons of preganglionic neurons, leave CNS and synapse on ganglionic neurons of the ANS visceral motor neurons

Front 311

autonomic ganglia

Back 311

ganglionic neurons innervate visceral effectors such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and adipose tissue

Front 312

post ganglionic fibers

Back 312

axons of ganglionic neurons in the ANS's visceral motor system, leave collateral ganglia, extend through abdominopelvic cavity

Front 313

enteric nervous system

Back 313

third division of ANS, extensive network in digestive tract walls, complex visceral reflexes

Front 314

collateral ganglia

Back 314

anterior to vertebral bodies, contain ganglionic neurons that innervate tissues in abdominopelvic cavity

Front 315

splanchnic nerve

Back 315

formed by preganglioninc fibers that innervate collateral ganglia in the dorsal wall of abdominal cavity, originate as paired ganglia

Front 316

celiac ganglion

Back 316

pair of interconnected masses of gray matter that may form single mass or many interwoven masses that innervate stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen

Front 317

suprarenal medullae

Back 317

very short axons that release neurotransmitters into bloodstream, function as hormones to affect target cells throughout body

Front 318

ganglionic neurons

Back 318

release neurotransmitters at specific target organs

Front 319

telodendria

Back 319

sympathetic varicosities that resemble strings of pearl that have neurotransmitter vesicles for the sympathetic system

Front 320

alpha 1

Back 320

alpha receptor that releases intracellular calcium ions from reserves in endoplasmic reticulum, has an excitatory effect on target cell

Front 321

alpha 2

Back 321

lowers cAMP levels in cytoplasm, inhibitory effect on cell, helps coordinate sympathetic and parasympathetic activities

Front 322

beta receptors

Back 322

affect membranes in many organs, triggers metabolic changes in target cell, stimulation increase intracellular cAMP levels

Front 323

beta 1

Back 323

increases metabolic activity

Front 324

beta 2

Back 324

triggers relaxation of smooth muscles along respiratory tract

Front 325

beta 3

Back 325

leads to lipolysis

Front 326

lipolysis

Back 326

break down triglycerides in adipocytes

Front 327

cholinergic sympathetic terminals

Back 327

innervate sweat glands of skin and blood vessels of skeletal muscles and brain; stimulate sweat gland secretion and dilate blood vessels

Front 328

nitroxidergic synapses

Back 328

release nitric oxide as neurotransmitter; neurons innervate smooth muscle in walls of blood vessels in skeletal muscle and the brain; produce vasodilatation and increased blood flow

Front 329

autonomic nuclei

Back 329

contained in mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata

Front 330

terminal ganglion

Back 330

of the parasympathetic system; near target organ, usually paired

Front 331

intramural ganglion

Back 331

of the parasympathetic system; embedded in tissues of target organs as clusters of ganglion cells

Front 332

anabolic system

Back 332

stimulation increases nutrient content of food and allows cells to absorb more nutrients

Front 333

muscarinic receptors

Back 333

at cholinergic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions for the parasympathetic and a few cholinergic junctions of the sympathetic system, contain G proteins, have a longer lasting effect than nicotine receptors, can be excitable or inhibited

Front 334

nicotinic receptors

Back 334

on surfaces of ganglion cell and exposure to Ach causes excitation of ganglionic nerve or muscle fiber

Front 335

nicotine

Back 335

binds to nicotinic receptors and target autonomic ganglia and skeletal neuromuscular junctions; can cause vomiting, diarrhea, high blood pressure, rapid heart rate, sweating, profuse salivation, convulsions, and may result in coma or death

Front 336

muscarine

Back 336

binds to muscarinc receptors; targets parasympathetic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions; can cause salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constriction of respiratory passages, low blood pressure, and slow heart rate

Front 337

dual innervation

Back 337

when the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems compete for control over a common visceral organ

Front 338

autonomic plexus

Back 338

nerve networks in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities that are formed by sympathetic postganglionic fibers and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers

Front 339

cardiac and pulmonary plexuses

Back 339

autonomic fibers entering thoracic cavity intersect for control of heart and lungs

Front 340

esophageal plexus

Back 340

descending branch of vagus nerve meet the splanchnic nerves

Front 341

celiac plexus

Back 341

innervates viscera within abdominal cavity

Front 342

hypogastric plexus

Back 342

innervates digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs of pelvic cavity

Front 343

autonomic tone

Back 343

background level of activity that can be affected by dual innervation

Front 344

long reflexes

Back 344

autonomic equivalents of polysynaptic reflexes; visceral sensory neurons deliver information to CNS along dorsal root of spinal nerves and ANS carries motor commands to visceral effectors; found in the majority of organs

Front 345

short reflexes

Back 345

bypass CNS by using sensory neurons and interneurons located within autonomic ganglia; controls simple motor response with localized effects; found in the digestive system

Front 346

sympathomimetrics

Back 346

enhance activity of sympathetic system, stimulates receptors or increase NE release

Front 347

sympatholytics

Back 347

suppress sympathetic activity by blocking receptors or inhibit NE release

Front 348

parasympathomimetrics

Back 348

enhance parasympathetic activity

Front 349

parsympatholytics

Back 349

suppress parasympathetic activity

Front 350

Prozac

Back 350

blocks reuptake of serotonin to prolong its mood elevating effect

Front 351

MAO inhibitors

Back 351

interferes with breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters

Front 352

caffeine

Back 352

competitively competes with adenosine at the receptor site to prevent sleepiness

Front 353

sensory transduction

Back 353

convert stimulus energy into nerve energy

Front 354

receptor potential

Back 354

local electrical change in receptor cell

Front 355

adaptation

Back 355

conscious sensation declines with continued stimulation

Front 356

intensity

Back 356

frequency, based on the number of fibers and which fibers

Front 357

duration

Back 357

change in firing frequency over time

Front 358

phasic receptor

Back 358

burst of activity and quickly adapt, such as the smell and hair receptors

Front 359

tonic receptor

Back 359

adapt slowly, generate impulses continually, such as proprioceptors

Front 360

general senses

Back 360

widely distributed throughout the body

Front 361

special senses

Back 361

senses limited to the head

Front 362

unencapsulated nerve endings

Back 362

dendrites are not wrapped in connective tissue

Front 363

hair receptors

Back 363

monitor movements of hair

Front 364

encapsulated nerve endings

Back 364

dendrites wrapped by glial cells or connective tissue

Front 365

tactile corpuscles

Back 365

phasic receptors for light touch and texture

Front 366

krause end bulb

Back 366

phasic receptor for touch in mucous membranes

Front 367

lamellated corpuscles

Back 367

phasic receptors that respond to deep pressure, stretch, tickle, and vibrations

Front 368

ruffini corpuscles

Back 368

tonic receptors that respond to heavy touch, pressure, joint movements, and skin stretching

Front 369

1st order neuron

Back 369

afferent neuron that detects touch, pressure, and proprioception on large, flat, myelinated axon and heat and cold on small unmyelinated slow fibers

Front 370

2nd order neuron

Back 370

decussation to opposite side in spinal cord or medulla/pons end in thalamus, except for proprioception (cerebellum)

Front 371

3rd order neuron

Back 371

thalamus to primary somesthetic cortex of cerebrum

Front 372

nocioreceptors

Back 372

allow awareness of tissue injuries, found in all tissues except the brain

Front 373

somatic pain

Back 373

comes from skin, muscles, and joints

Front 374

visceral pain

Back 374

pain that comes from stretch, chemical irritants, or ischemia of viscera

Front 375

spinoreticular tract

Back 375

pain signals reach reticular formation, hypothalamus, and limbic system triggering visceral, emotional, and behavioral reactions

Front 376

referred pain

Back 376

misinterpreted pain that is assume from the brain, usually a slow and deep pressure

Front 377

endogenous opiods

Back 377

include painkillers, analgesics, enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins produced by CNS under stress to act as neuromodulators to block transmission of pain

Front 378

spinal gating

Back 378

stopping pain signals from the dorsal horn

Front 379

gustation

Back 379

sensation of taste resulting from action of chemicals on taste buds

Front 380

filiform

Back 380

type of lingual papillae that senses texture

Front 381

fungiform

Back 381

papillae found at the tips and sides of tongue

Front 382

foliate

Back 382

papillae without any taste sensation

Front 383

vallate

Back 383

aka circumvallate; conbtains 1/2 of taste buds, found at rear of tongue

Front 384

umami

Back 384

taste of amino acids (MSG)

Front 385

mouth feel

Back 385

detected by lingual nerves in papilla that senses for texture, aroma, temperature, and appearance

Front 386

sound

Back 386

audible vibrations of molecules

Front 387

pinna

Back 387

fleshy auricle directs air vibration down external auditory meatus

Front 388

cerumen

Back 388

earwax formed from glandular secretitions and dead cells

Front 389

auditory tube

Back 389

aka eustachian tube connects to nasopharynx and helps with equalizing air pressure on tympanic membrane

Front 390

bony labyrinth

Back 390

passageways in temporal bone that make up the inner ear

Front 391

inner hair cell

Back 391

stereocilia in the organ corti that assist in hearing

Front 392

outer hair cell

Back 392

adjust cochlear responses to different frequencies and increases auditory precision

Front 393

tympanic membrane

Back 393

has 18x the area of the oval window; used to transfer sound to the ossicles to the endolymph

Front 394

tensor tympani

Back 394

muscle that tenses tympanic membrane to prevent hearing loss during loud sounds

Front 395

stapedius muscle

Back 395

reduces mobility of stapes in response to slowly building sounds

Front 396

equilibrium

Back 396

control of coordination and balance

Front 397

static equilibrium

Back 397

perceived by macula in response to head orientation

Front 398

dynamic equilibrium

Back 398

perception of motion or acceleration using macula or cristae

Front 399

macula

Back 399

hair cells with stereocilia and kinocilium buried in otolith membrane

Front 400

otoliths

Back 400

add to the density and inertia to enhance the sense of gravity and motion

Front 401

cristae ampullaris

Back 401

hair cells buried In a mound of gelatinous membrane; orientation causes ducts to be stimulated by rotation in different planes

Front 402

vestibular cortex

Back 402

awareness of spatial orientation and movement

Front 403

vision

Back 403

perception of light emitted or reflected from objects in the environment

Front 404

eyebrows

Back 404

provide facial expression

Front 405

eyelids

Back 405

aka palpebra, block foreign objects, help with sleep, moisten eyes; consist of orbicularis oculi muscle and tarsal plate

Front 406

tarsal glands

Back 406

secrete oil to prevent tear evaporation

Front 407

eyelashes

Back 407

keep debris from eye

Front 408

conjunctiva

Back 408

transparent mucous membrane that lines eyelids and covers anterior surface of eyeball except cornea; richly innervated and vascular so heals quickly

Front 409

lacrimal apparatus

Back 409

provides tears to wash away foreign particles, help with diffusion of gas and contains antibacterial enzyme

Front 410

fibrous layer

Back 410

outer tunic layer that contains sclera and cornea

Front 411

vascular layer

Back 411

middle tunic that contains choroid, ciliary body, and iris

Front 412

internal layer

Back 412

layer that contains retina and optic nerve

Front 413

cornea

Back 413

transparent cover on anterior surface of eyeball

Front 414

aqueous humor

Back 414

serous fluid posterior to cornea, anterior to lens; produced by ciliar body and flows to posterior chamber through pupil to anterior chamber and is reabsorbed by the canal of Schelmm

Front 415

lens

Back 415

changes shape to help focus light

Front 416

vitrous humor

Back 416

jelly filled space between lens and retina

Front 417

cataracts

Back 417

clouding of the lens caused by aging, diabetes, smoking, and UV light

Front 418

glaucoma

Back 418

death of retinal cells due to elevated pressure within the eye, leads to obstruction of scleral venous sinuses, colored halos, and dimness of vision

Front 419

retina

Back 419

forms as an outgrowth of the diencephalon, attached at optic disc, pressed against rear of eyeball by vitreous

Front 420

detached retina

Back 420

caused by a blow to the head or lack of vitreous humor, results in blurry areas in the field of vision, disrupts blood supply and can lead to blindness

Front 421

macula lutea

Back 421

cells on visual axis of eye that are visual under an opthalmoscopic exam

Front 422

fovea centralis

Back 422

center of macula; finely detailed images due to packed receptor cells

Front 423

optic disc

Back 423

blind spot formed where the optic nerve exits the posterior surface of the eyeball leading to no receptor cells

Front 424

pupillary constrictor

Back 424

smooth muscle encircles the pupil caused by parasympathetic stimulation

Front 425

pupillary dilator

Back 425

spoke like myoepithelial cells dilate pupil during sympathetic stimulation

Front 426

photopupillary reflex

Back 426

both pupils constrict if one eye is illuminated as a type of consensual reflex

Front 427

principle of refraction

Back 427

light striking the cornea is bent unless it enters at a 90 degree angle

Front 428

near response

Back 428

allows eyes to focus on nearby objects due to convergence of eyes and constriction of pupil

Front 429

emmetropia

Back 429

2 planes looking at distant objects

Front 430

hyperopia

Back 430

focal point forms past the fovea, farsighted, eyeball is too short; corrected with convex lenses

Front 431

myopia

Back 431

focal point forms too soon, nearsighted, eyeball is too long; corrected with concave lenses

Front 432

rod cells

Back 432

used during night vision, photoreceptor that has an outer segment with a stack of coin-like membranous discs studded with rhodopsin pigment molecules

Front 433

cone cells

Back 433

used for color vision, has an outer segment tapered to a point

Front 434

rhodopsin

Back 434

pigment in rods that have absorption peak at 500 nm, has the opsin and retinal portion; converts from cis to trans

Front 435

photopsin

Back 435

pigment in cones that have different amino acids that determine wavelength of light absorbed

Front 436

duplicity theory

Back 436

states that a single type of receptor is incapable of providing high sensitivity and high resolution

Front 437

scotopic system

Back 437

used for night vision, involves neuronal convergence for motion detection

Front 438

photoptic system

Back 438

used in day vision, no neuronal convergence

Front 439

blue cones

Back 439

have peak sensitivity at 420 nm

Front 440

green cones

Back 440

have peak sensitivity at 531 nm

Front 441

red cones

Back 441

have peak in the orange yellow range at 558 nm

Front 442

color blindness

Back 442

lack of a photopsin, sex linked recessive disease that causes one to be unable to distinguish red-green

Front 443

depth perception

Back 443

ability to judge distance to objects by using two images