Msci 112 Lecture. 1St Exam

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silicate minerals

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minerals composed of silicon and oxygen

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minerals

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naturally occuring, inorganic, solid (at room temp) substances with a definite (but variable) chemical element composition and an orderly internal crystal structure.

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mineral formation

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form through the bonding together of different elements or (less commonly) the together of 1 element

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rock

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collection of more than one mineral

interlocking or bonded grains of matter typically composed of single minerals

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ways for minerals to form

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crystallization from magmas and hot solutions
alteration by temp or pressure changes
precipitation from water
activities of aquatic organisms and plants

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Igneous rocks

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aggregates of one or more minerals formed through the cooling and crystallization of magma or by the quenching from a silica-rich liquid

formed by cooling of molten material to pt. of hardening.

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magma

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hot, mobile solution that consists of liquids, gases and crystals

molten material that solidifies into igneous rocks.

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lava

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magma that has reached earth's surface

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Igneous composition

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refers to the mineral make-up of the rock

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igneous texture

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refers to rock's size, shape and arrangement of the mineral crystals present in the rock

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Felsic composition (igneous rocks)

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generally light of pink colored with over 70% quartz, plus orthoclase feldspar, biotite and/or muscovite. the type of rock characteristics in Continental crust

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Intermediate composition (igneous)

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generally grayish or salt and peppered in color with around 60% quartz plus Na-plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole, orthoclase, and biotite. form where mafic and felsic rocks or magma interact in crustal processes. (subduction zones) btwn oceanic and continental crustal plates

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mafic composition (igneous)

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generally dark-gray color with 40-50% quartz plus Ca-plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine and amphibole. characteristic of Oceanic crust

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Ultramafic composition (igneous)

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dark green with less than 40% quartz, with large amounts of olivine, pyroxene and Ca-plagioclase. major constituents of the Earth's mantle

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Intrusive (igneous texture)

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rocks that form from slow cooling of magma. usually occurs when magma intrudes into preexisting solid rocks.

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Phaneritic (intrusive, igneous texture)

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individual crystals are visible with the unaided eye

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porphyry (intrusive, igneous texture)

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at least 2 sizes of crystals are present (shows magma underwent at least 2 periods of cooling)

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extrusive (igneous, texture)

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form fast from cooling of magma. occurs when lava flows out or "extrudes" onto earth's surface

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sedimentary rocks

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rocks formed above earth's surface. (75% of earth's surface)

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3 ways sedimentary rocks are formed

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1. clastic
2. bioclastic
3. chemical

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clastic (sedimentary rock formation)

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lithification processes of compaction and cementation of sediment that was eroded or weathered from preexisting rock deposits

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bioclastic (sedimentary rock formation)

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accumulation of organic debris (shells)

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chemical (sedimentary rock formation)

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by direct chemical precipitation from an aqueous solution

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Clastic (sedimentary composition)

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appears to be made of visible rock fragments or has distinctive layering

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bioclastic (sedimentary composition)

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made of organic fragments (shell or skeletal debris)

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chemical (sedimentary composition)

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rock appears crystalline or microcrystalline

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lithification

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layer formation

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metamorphism

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process that causes changes in the texture and mineralogy of other rocks. form by pre-existing material as a result of heat and/or pressure

alteration occurs without melting rocks.

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types of metamorphism

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contact and regional metamorphism

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contact metamorphism

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result of magma or hydrothermal fluids coming into contact with cooler rock.

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regional metamorphism

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broad areas of intense compression or deep burial, associated with convergent plate tectonic activity

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mineral

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naturally occurring inorganic solid w/ a specific chemical comp. arranged into a uniform atomic structure.

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Mineral groups

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silicates (SiO4 tetrahedra)
Carbonates
Sulfate
Halides
Oxides
Sulfides

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aphanitic (igneous texture)

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very small crystals. needs help with a microscope

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glass (igneous texture)

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no crystals

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Oceanic rocks

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made of basalt and gabbro
minerals: olivine, Ca-Feldspar
chemistry: Magnesium Sulfate and CaAl2Si2O8

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igneous: continental rocks and crust

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rock: granite
minerals: quartz, K-feldspar, Na-Feldspar
Chemistry: SiO2

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Examples of Metamorphic rock from class lecture

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Mud-shale, schists, Gneiss

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principle of Uniformitarianism

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processes we see today are same as past processes.

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1st found principle of geology

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principle of Uniformitarianism

Made by James Hutton

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Solid inner core

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5150-6370 km
1.7% earth's mass
Iron and nickel
can transmit shear and compressional waves

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liquid iron outer core

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289--5150 km
30.8% of earth's mass
Oxygen, sulfur, iron, and nickel

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how big is earth's radius?

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about 6370 km

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mantle

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40-2890 km.
67.1 % of earth's mass
Silicate rich
Oxygen, Calcium, Magnesium, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron

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Crust

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0-40 km
.4 % of earth's mass

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who first proposed that earth was layered?

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Emil Wiechert

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compressional waves

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expand and then compress material they move through. (moves through solid, liquid or gas)

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shear waves

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moves material from side to side (only moves through solids)

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Moho discontinuity

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separation btwn crust and mantle

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Information:

Mantle is separated into upper and lower mantle. (transition zone) Rock density increases.

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chemical composition of rocks don't change but compactness of the minerals do change.

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what does the crust contain more of than the mantle?

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silica

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Informational:

iron (densest) found toward core.

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oxygen (least dense) found more in the crust and mantle.

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lithosphere

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strong, rocky outer shell of solid earth that comprises the crust and uppermost mantle. Forms tectonic plates

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asthenosphere

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weak, ductile layer of mantle beneath the lithosphere that deforms to accommodate the horizontal and vertical motions of plate tectonics.

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continental drift

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large-scale movement of continents horizontally

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Who came up with idea of continental drift?

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Wegener and Dutoit

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evidence for continental drift?

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continents fit together
geological similarities
floral and faunal similarities
fossils

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sea floor spreading

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convection pushes and pulls continents apart.

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who came up with the idea of sea floor spreading?

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holmes and ewing

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divergent boundaries

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moving away <--|-->

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types of divergent boundaries and descriptions

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ocean spreading center and continental rift zones

characterized by new oceanic lithosphere and parallel rift valleys, volcanism, and earthquakes

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Convergent boundaries

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coming together -->|<--

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ocean-ocean convergence

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1 plate is subducted under another.
makes a deep sea trench and volcanic island arc.

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ocean-continent convergence

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trench and volcanic mtn belt are formed. subduction

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continent-continent

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high mtns and wide plateau

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tranform faults

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slip past each other

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types of transform faults

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continental and mid-ocean ridge (San andreas fault and eurasian plate)

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Processes at plate boundaries

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normal faults (extensional motion)
Thrust faults (compressional)
strike-slip faults (san andreas)

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plates boundaries are associated with...

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volcanoes (island arcs)
deep focus earthquakes (>300 km in depth)
forarc basin

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forarc basin

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zone of intensely deformed rock in belt btwn island arc and deep sea trench

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1st step of wilson cycle

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rifting within a continent splits the continent

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2nd step of wilson cycle

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rifting leads to opening of a new ocean basin and creation of new oceanic crust

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3rd part of wilson cycle

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as seafloor spreading continues and an ocean opens, passive margin cooling begins and sediment accumulates

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4th step of wilson cycle

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convergence begins: ocean crust gets subducted under continent, creating a volcanic mtn belt at active margins

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5th step of wilson cycle

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terrane accretion welds material to continents

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6th step of wilson cycle

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as continents collide, orgeny thickens the crust and builds up mtns. forming new supercontinent

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7th step of wilson cycle

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continent erodes, thinning crust and the cycle starts over

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lithification

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process that converts sediments into rocks.

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stratum

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tabular layer of sediment accumulated in discrete episodes.

related to sedimentary rocks.

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compaction

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particles are squeezed together by weight of overlying sediments into a mass denser than origional mass.

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cementation

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minerals precipitate around deposited particles and bind them together.

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weathering

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process where rocks are broken down at earth's surface to produce sediment particles

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2 types of weathering

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physical weathering and chemical weathering

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physical weathering
(disintegration)

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frost wedging, unloading, thermal expansion, organic activity

solid rock is fragmented by mechanical processes that don't change chemical composition

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what does physical weathering do?

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makes smaller particles
maintenance of chemical integrity
increased surface area
increased volume

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chemical weathering
(decomposition)

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minerals in a rock are chemically altered or dissolved.

solution, oxidation, hydrolysis

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what does chemical weathering do?

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destruction of chemical integrity
often increased volume
change in mineralogy

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erosion

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moves sediments (wind, waves, rivers, ice)

process that dislodges particles of rock produced by weathering and move them away from source area.

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transportation

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sediment particles are moved to sink areas

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deposition

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sediments settle out as processes slow down to form layers of sediments in sink areas

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burial

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layers of sediment accumulate and compact past layers

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diagenesis

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lithifies sediments to make sedimentary rocks

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stratigraphy

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description, correlation and classification of strata in sedimentary rock

study of arrangment of sedimentary layers and interpretation of their depositional environments

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principle of original horizontality

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sediments are deposited under influence of gravity as nearly horizontal beds

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principle of superposition

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each layer of an undeformed sedimentary sequence is younger than the one beneath it

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stratagraphic succession

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chronologically ordered set of strata

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unconformity

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gaps in time, record is missing or never deposited

a surface btwn 2 rock layers in a stratigraphic succession that were laid down w/ time gap btwn them (either never formed or was eroded away)

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disconformity

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break in record

unconformity where an upper sedimentary sequence overlies an erosional surface developed on an undeformed still-horizontal lower sedimentary sequence

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common ways disconformity occurs

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sea level drops
broad tectonic uplifts

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nonconformity

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upper sedimentary beds overlie metamorphic or igneous rocks

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angular conformity

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upper beds overlie lower beds that have been folded by tectonic processes and then eroded to a more or less even plane.

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eras

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Paleozoic (Old-Life)
Mesozoic (middle life)
Cenozoic (new life)

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intervals of time in order

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eon
Era
periods
epochs

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What's the time interval we live in today?

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Holocene epoch of Neogene period in Cenozoic era.

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bedforms

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organized structures of the sediment surface in response to a process

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paleography

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reconstruction of ancient environments from the stratigraphic record

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soil

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loose sediment at surface (organic material)

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topsoil

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upper zone of many soil (sand and clay mixed with numus?)

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Humus

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organic material that gives topsoil its dark color

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caliche

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calcium carbonate produced by evaporation of groundwater

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laterite

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iron oxide rich soil produced in moist tropical regions

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lakes

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lower elevation and more likely to preserve.
indicates abundant precipitation.
records don't change that much
very predictable

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meltwater

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transports sediments from glaciers and forms streams and lakes.

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outwash

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well stratified layers of sediments

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drop stones

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scattered coarse sediments found in sed matrix.

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desert soils

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little organic material (evaporite minerals)

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interior drainage

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water doesn't leave basin

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dunes

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piles of sand
< 1 % of deserts
moves w/ prevailing wind direction

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dune migration

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moves downwind

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alluvial fans

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land delta
low cone-shaped structures
developed where mtn slope meets valley floor

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mudcracks

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polygonal shape
form from alternate wetting and drying
associated with evaporites

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annastmose

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several channels going all over the place

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meandering

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abundant water in comparison to sediments

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back swamps

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flood plain, mud settles out when stream over flows

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point bar

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slowest flow on inner bend. accumulates sand. fastest flow on outer bands

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delta

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depositional body of sand, silt and clay formed when river empties into the sea
sediment settles out in sequence
Course --> fine

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lobes

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growing portion of delta

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bishop usher

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earth started 4004 b.c at 9 am on a monday.
1st guy

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Jolly

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said millions of years
did time by rate of salt delivered to ocean to accumulate salinity

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Lord Kelvin

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calculated several millions of years
rate of heat loss from a cooling body

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Hutton

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ten of millions of years
estimates erosion rates thickeness of sediment piles

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four guys who came up with age of earth in order

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Usher, Jolly, Kelvin, Hutton

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lithogenous inorganic sediments

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genesis from the rock (sandstone, mudstone, siltstone, conglomerate)

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hydrogenous inorganic sediments

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genesis from the water (carbonates, phosphorites, salts, manganese, nodules, oolites)

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Cosmogenous inorganic sediments

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genesis from the cosmos (meteorites and dust)

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organic (biogenous)

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genesis from organics
-limestone
-oozes(calcareous or siliceous)

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sources of sediments

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terrigenous
neritic
pelagic

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terrigenous

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genesis from land

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neritic

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coastal sediments

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pelagic

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deep sea sediments

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types of stratigraphy

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Lithostratigraphy
biostratigraphy
chronostratigraphy
magnetostratigraphy

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facies

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a laterally continuous body of rock w/ a similar set of characteristics

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sedimentary textures

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Size
-gravel, sand and mud
roundness, sphericity, sorting
color

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biostratigraphy

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correlating and assigning ages of rock and strata by using fossils found within them

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chronostratigraphy

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age of rock in relation to time

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magnetostratigraphy

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technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic sequences. Pieces reflect direction of earth's magnetic field at time of formation

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under lithostratigraphy

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Law of horizontallity
law of superposition
Walther's law

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Walther's law

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later migration of adjacent environments build a vertical sequence.
Can't be applied to a section with unconformities

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Lithologic correlation

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preservation of rock record is poor, making need for correlation where no data exists.
lateral continuity
correlation of facies and rock-NOT time

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paraconformity

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drastically different ages. no evident time change but missing sediments.

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Crust characteristcs

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Oceanic: mafic
Continental: felsic

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actualism

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application of modern processes to ancient systems.

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catastrophism

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theory that earth has been affected in past by sudden, short-lived, violent events

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outcrop/exposure

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rocky surfaces that stsand exposed and are readily accessible for study

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sediments

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material deposited on earth's surface by water, ice or air

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sedimentary rocks are formed by...

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pre-existing rocks (sandstone, shale)
skeletal debris (limestone)
chemical precipitation (evaporates)