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172 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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1. Motivation
2. Emotion |
1. Sustaining course of life
2. Internal sensations in response to life events |
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Fixed Action Patterns
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Stereotyped, complex and innate behaviours that are products of natural selection. They are driven by 1) effectiveness of stimuli and 2) level of internal motivation. These cannot be overrun with conditioning.
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Differential Reproduction
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Heritable traits vary in genetic frequencies and are passed onto offspring, leading to:
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Survival Motivation
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Stereotyped neuroendocrine signals across mammales favour things such as hunger, thirst, fear and avoidance are favoured, otherwise, animals tend to eliminate themselves.
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Reproduction Motivation
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We seek sexual activity that leads to reproduction, and we tend to nurture and support our offsrping. The essence of natural selection.
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Competition Motivation
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Territorial and dominance characteristics lead to social motivations and emotions in many species when species overproduce.
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K-Selected species
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Species that put a great amount of investment into a small amount of offspring (ie: humans)
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R-Selected species
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Species that put a small amount of investment into a large amount of offspring (ie: mice)
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Inclusive fitness
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Individuals tend to strive to survive and reproduce, as well as to help their kin to maximize gene representation in the following generations
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Evolutionary lag
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Complex animals can learn and adapt without genetic change. This cultural evolution has far surpassed the pace of natural selection, where we are living far outside our biological context.
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Darwin's definition of emotion
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Not merely internal sensations, but higher mammal facial expressions/gestures that are stereotyped across species as instinctive behaviours from natural selection.
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Facial expressions
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Transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries and are innate. Even infants who have never seen them before can exhibit them. Recognized on Americans by tribes in New Guinea who had had no outside human contact.
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Reflexes
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Involuntary stimulus responses oriented towards survival. Not processes cortically, but merely run through the spinal tract. Often seen in infants through suckling, palm grasping, toe fanning, etc.
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Fixed Action Patterns
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1) Stereotype
2) Independent from immediate external control 3) Spontaneous 4) Independent from individual learning |
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C57 Mice & JK Mice
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______________ rarely vocalize while 2/3 of ____________ do. This proves that there is genetic effects on our motivational/emotional traits (despite the fact that most of these traits are polygenic)
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Mice
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These animals were bred selectively for either exploring or non-exploring behaviour
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Classical conditioning
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The pairing of a neutral stimulus to a stimulus that normally exhibits a response. This creates a new conditioned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Can occur for emotions in humans (often anxiety)
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Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
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When behaviour is reinforced with rewards, it will be carried our more. Without reinforcement, behaviours will become extinguished. This can also be said for negative reinforcement (termination of a negative outcome) and punishment (decreases frequency of behaviour)
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Types of simple learning
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1) Classic Conditioning
2) Operant/Instrumental Conditioning |
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Types of Complex Learning
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1) Vicarious learning through experience through observing reinforcement or punishment
2) Cognitive imagery of incentives and disincentives |
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Rooting reflex
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When infant is touched on the cheek it will turn it's head for something to suck on
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More/startle reflex
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In response to sudden noise or physical shock, infant will throw out arms and arch back
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Babinsky reflex
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Infant will spread and curl their toes when the bottom of their foot is touched
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Palmar Grasp
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When the palm of infant is touched, the will curl their fingers into a grasp
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Peripheral Nervous System
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contains afferent and efferent pathways to carry information to and from the central nervous system
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Hindbrain (Reptilian brain)
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Contains medulla (vital function regulation such as breathing) and pons (cranial nerve nuclei that responds to stimuli) and cerebellum
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Midbrain
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Contains tectum (auditory information) and tegmentum (visuomotor movements and motor movements)
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Forebrain
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Contains hypothalamus, pituitary gland, basal ganglia (caudate nucleus and putamen) and limbic system
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Hypothalamus
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Right above the midbrain, contains several nuclei. Most projections that extend into the higher cortical regions are projections from here.
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Neocortex
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In humans, the highly folded structure gives has lots of surface area, giving rise to much complexity. More complexity here is associated with greater control over forebrain reflexes.
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Not consciously controlled, but controls smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Rapidly activated during dress/emotions through the thoracic/lumbar spinal cord. Increases bloodflow to skeletal muscle, releases epinephrine from adrenal gland and decreases bloodflow to the digestive system. This causes increased heart rate/respiration, pupil dilation, perspiration and goosebumps. Uses acetylcholine at synapses and norepinephrine at target organs.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Stimulates relaxation reflexes, to reverse the actions of the sympathetic nervous system. This comes from cranial nerves in brainstem and sacral nerves in spinal cord. These changes occur slowly because there is no evolutionary pressure for them to be quick. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmiter at synapses and target organs.
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Reticular Activating System
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Takes up a large portion of the brainstem with complex network of neurons involved in arousal in sleep/wakefulness and possibly selective attention.
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Hormones
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Travel through blood and act on target receptors throughout the body
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Steroid hormones
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Slow-acting, lipid soluble hormones that pass readily through all systems. Typically involved in reproduction, stress and metabolism. These hormones enter the cells to bind with receptors.
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Peptide Hormones
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Links of amino acids that are often water soluble and rapid in action. Cannot readily pass through blood-brain barrier. These hormones bind with receptors on the outside of the cell membrane.
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Adrenal Gland
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Contains the adrenal medulla (overgrown ganglion extension of the sympathetic nervous system) and adrenal cortex (steroid secreting organ)
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Adrenal Medulla
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Releases norepinephrine in conjunction with sympathetic nervous system firing to enhance the reflexes started. Triggers fight or flight response
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Adrenal Cortex
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Does not have nervous input. Controlled mostly by peptide ACTH from pituitary gland. Steroids such as aldosterone (associated with thirst, in response to binding of angiotensin) and glucocorticoids (associated with metabolic functions and long-term psychological stress)
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Gonads or Ovaries
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Release sex steroids in careful balance with adrenal cortex. In males, most notably testosterone and in females, most notably estrogen and progesterone.
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Pituitary gland
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Split into anterior (glandular tissue secreting peptide hormones) and posterior sections (innervated with nerve tissue from hypothalamus)
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Anterior Pituitary
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Affected chemically through blood network. Peptides from hypothalamus cause release of peptide hormones that other glands around the body so that they can release their own hormones. Peptides it releases include ACTH, endorphins, LH, FSH, prolactin, growth hormone and TSH.
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Posterior Pituitary
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Receives direct nerve control from hypothalamus to release oxytocin and vasopressin
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Third Ventricle
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Surrounds the hypothalamus and contains cerebrospinal fluid. Contains important neurochemicals that regulate behaviour.
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Limbic System
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Includes amygdala, septum and hippocampus. Contains many connections to hypothalamus and is sometimes considered to include with hypothalamus.
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Hypothalamus
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Releases CRF, GnRH and NPY to interact with the anterior pituitary gland.
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Catecholamines
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Dopamine and norepinephrine
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Indoleamines
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Serotonin
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Dopamine and Norepinephrine
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Derived from amino acid tyrosine
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Serotonin
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Derived from amino acid tryptophan
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Dopaminergic Pathway
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Involved in motivation/reward circuitry. Created by ventral tegmentum region and travels through the medial-forebrain-bundle to reach the nucleus accumbens. Extremely important in the substantia nigra of basal ganglia for initiation of motor movements.
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Noradrenergic Pathway
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Synthesized by neurons in locus coeruleus, ascends through medial-forebrain-bundle and into hypothalamus, and much of neocortex and limbic system.
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Serotonergic Pathway
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Synthesized from cell bodies in brainstem called raphe nucleus, ascending through the medial-forebrain-bundle. Projects into much of the limbic system and neocortex. Can also come from derivatives secreted by pineal gland.
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Pineal Gland
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Not actual nervous system, but glandular tissue. Secretes melatonin in response to light/dark cycles.
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Extracellular (Hypovalemic) Thirst
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Caused by blood less, perspiration and heavy menstruation, leading to a drop in blood pressure. This is the first occurrence in water deprivation.
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Baroreceptors
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Detect drops in blood pressure, beginning a cascade of events. Release of an enzyme renin activates hormone angiotensin in bloodstream which binds to adrenal cortex. This promotes vasoconstriction and aldosterone release.
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Aldosterone
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Causes reabsorption of sodium at the kidneys to prevent excess loss in urine.
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Angiotensin
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Secondary function of causing posterior pituitary to release vasopressin, which causes further reabsorption of water at kidneys.
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Intracellular (Osmotic) Thirst
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When extracellular sodium gets too high, intracellular water is drawn out of the cell across osmotic gradient. Triggered by salt consumption or extreme thirst.
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Subfornical organ
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Suggested that it may contain baroreceptors. Sits outside BBB by 3rd ventricle/hypothalamus and is wired down to the nucleus medianus of hypothalamus
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Prandial Drinking
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Drinking alongside a meal because consumption of food throws off the salt/water balance. Done in anticipation of this imbalance.
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Cessation of drinking
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Thought that this occurs from nervous feedback from throat/stomach. When dogs do not have an accumulation of water in their stomach, they do not do this.
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Starvation
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Triggers:
1) Migration (to find resources) 2) Aggression (competition) 3) Unusual food consumption |
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Feeding/Absorption
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Facilitated by parasympathetic nervous system and the storing of energy via insulin from the pancreas.
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Fasting
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Maintained by sympatheric nervous system and adrenal glands, glucagon from the pancreas causes release of stored energy.
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Ghrelin
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Released from epithelial stomach lining once the stomach becomes empty to interact with the arcuate nucleus in hypothalamus.
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Leptin
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A lipostatic factor in hunger/satiation. This peptide is secreted from adipose tissue to inhibit NPY, ceasing sensations of hunger. Mice who have this gene knocked out eat until they become extremely obese.
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Insulin
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When this is injected into bloodstream, there is sharp decline in blood sugar which causes excessive eating. Required for glucose to physically enter the cell.
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Diabete mellitus
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A condition where pancreas doesn't secrete insulin and cells cannot intake insulin.
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Hepatic Portal Nerve
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Glucose from here travels to the liver, producing long-lasting suppression of eating from signals sent to the hypothalamus via vagus nerve.
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Vagus nerve
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Cranial nerve that sends parasympathetic message to thoracic and abdominal cavities. Likely carries many signals of satiety to brain.
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
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Lesions here cause overeating, due to no internal satiety cues
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Lateral hypothalamus
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Lesions here cause undereating
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Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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Released when food reaches the intestines. This reduces feeding behaviour. May even be involved withhuman panic attacks through interaction with dopamine neural networks.
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Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
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Interacts with leptin and increases during food deprivation. Neurons for this peptide are found in arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus near third ventricle. Injections into 3rd ventricle cause ravenous eating.
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Food Aversion
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One novel association of food with sickness will lead to avoidance of this food (rapid extinction)
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Dietary neophobia
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A tendency to avoid foods that we have never tried before, which is exhibited especially in developing children.
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Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
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When rats are deprived of this, they will immediately switch to a diet rich in it, even though it is tasteless (innate appetites)
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Area Postrema
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Located by the 4th ventricle in the brain stem where there isn't as much protection from the BBB so that noxious chemicals can cause vomiting by entering here.
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Disgust
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This expression is universally stereotyped across cultures and is adaptive to avoid spoiled and unhealthy foods/stimuli. Reaction includes depressed mouth, flat tongue, spitting, elevation of upper lip.
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Pain
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Acts as a disincentive for potentially self-damaging behaviour and forces us to rest and recover after damage has taken place. This is punishment and negative reinforcement. Difficult to study because it is a subjective measure.
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Posterior Hypothalamus
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Contains cold-sensitive neurons that result in heat conservation through thyroid hormones from pituitary gland to activate sympathetic nervous system (shivering, vasoconstriction and piloerection)
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Preoptic area of the hypothalamus
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Heat sensitive neurons that leads to heat dissipation. Triggers decrease in metabolic rate (vasodilation, sweat production and thirst)
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Conscious behavioural pain response
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Likely deals with cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and limbic system, and sensed by cutaneous receptors. This response is different from autonomic response sensed solely by hypothalamus.
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Pain fibers
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enter the spinal cord at the dorsal horn where they synapse onto the spinothalamic tract, spinoreticular tract or the spinomesencephalic tract.
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C-fibers
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Thin and unmyelinated fibers that cause slow and aching pain
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A-delta fibers
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Thick and myelinated, causing sharp and fast pain
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Gate-Control Theory
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Interneurons act in an inhibitory fashion, preventing pain transmission to the brain
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Spinothalamic tract
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Most prominent pain pathway, connecting to the cortex and limbic regions (associated with motivation and emotion)
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Periaqueductal Grey (PAG)
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Spinomesencephalic tract connects here, which then connects to hypthalamus. This area has receptors for enkephalins (such as opiates) and is near the 4th ventricle
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Endorphins
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Large peptides released by the hypothalamus. Beta-endorphin (a precursor of ACTH) is released in times of stress.
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Unconditioned fears
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Stimuli that have been novel and salient throughout evolutionary history. Very resistant to extinction.
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Innate Danger Reactions
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Vary from species to species and are often defensive reactions such as urinating or defecating and immobility. In humans, can lead to maladaptive behaviour often because of anxiety.
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Conditioned Fears
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Traumatic single events can elicit an avoidance response that is rapidly acquired. Can lead to irrational phobias in human beings (difficult to treat)
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Fear response
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Firing of sympathetic nervous system releases catecholamines from adrenal medulla. Much of the neural network is taken up for this response because it is so evolutionary important.
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Dorsal/lateral hypothalamus
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Stimulation of this area leads to flight response, due to release of CRF, stimulating adrenal cortex with ACTH from pituitary (stress related) and endorphins
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Dorsal PAG/Medial hypothalamus
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Stimulation of this area leads to a highly defensive emergency reaction (fight response)
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Amygdala
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Lesions here disrupt fear processing while electrical stimulation evokes it. Emotions (including fear) are elicited by direct connections to the olfactory bulbs. CRF is found in the central nucleus here which enhances startle response.
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Urbache-Weithe Syndrome
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Rare atrophy of the amygdala, leading to loss of memory of traumatic events, decreased fearfulness and recognition of fear in others.
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Cortical nucleus
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Amygdala nucleus associated with olfaction
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Centromedial nucleus
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Amygdala nucleus associated with emotion arousal
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Basolateral nucleus
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Amygdala nucleus associated with fear conditioning through memory and stimuli
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Anxiety
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Similar to fear, however contains a large cognitive component involving prolonged and intense thought about potential experiences occurring.
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Benzodiazepines
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Most common drug for anxiety treatment through stimulation of GABA(a) receptors. GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter, so this drug potentially works through a capacity to strengthen inhibition of upper cortical thought processes.
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Courage
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Through this emotion, it is thought that when fear is not actually adaptive (eg: inescapable danger) that feat is not actually experience (eg; soldiers in a deadly situation)
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Males
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Take a quantitative reproductive strategy to spread as much genetic material as possible
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Females
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Take a qualitative reproductive strategy to reproduction and look for high parental investment.
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Paternity uncertainty
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Leads to unreliable paternal investment, and potential mate-guarding go protect reproductive prospects and investment
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Erection
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Involves parasympathetic spinal reflex of male reproductive physiology
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Ejaculation
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Involves sympathetic spinal reflex of male reproductive physiology
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Testosterone
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Chronic release from testes keeps sex drive consistent, and castration causes diminished sex drive. Produced when GnRH from hypothalamus causes releases of LH from pituitary which bonds to the testes.
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Preoptic area of hypothalamus
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May facilitate sexual functioning and copulations. Lesions here can eliminate sexual response in males to an even more devastating effect than castration because it has so many androgen receptors. This area is larger in males than females due to sexual differentiation via testosterone.
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Inappropriate hypersexuality
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Caused by lesions to the amygdala, leading to mounting of many different species and objects
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ACTH
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Small amounts of this stress hormone can facilitate sexual response in males, but too much of it will inhibit (much like stimulants). This is thought to somehow involve dopamine circuitry
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Progesterone
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A massive surge in LH mid-menstrual cycle causes release of this to cause ovulation (estrous). Levels remain high throughout pregnancy. Causes highest point of sexual receptivity in the menstrual cycle in mammals other than primates and humans.
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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Responsible for female spinal sexual responses (blood flow, lubrication and lordosis)
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Proceptive behaviour
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While in estrus, this is done to solicit male attention (tends to elicit male mounting).
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Adrenal androgens
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Found to be more influential in female human sexual receptivity than ovarian androgens.
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ACTH
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Female sexual responses are greatly decreased by this sex hormone. This is why Northern areas see women with decreased sex drive in winter because of increased melatonin.
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Septum
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Plays an inhibitory role in female sexual behaviour. Lesions here cause increase in female sexual receptivity through interconnections with olfactory mechanisms
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Sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA)
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There is a critical perinatal window where testosterone masculinizes this brain area, making it larger.
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Testes-determining factor (TDF)
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This set of genes is what sets in motion of masculinizing effects, developing the gonads and external genitals.
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
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In females, contains estrogen and progesterone receptors, and lesions will lead to a decrease in sexual receptivity.
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Homosexuality
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Possibly a result of polygyny where certain males were excluded from mating with females
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X Chromosome Linked Heritage
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Because there is a higher concordance rate of homosexuality in the maternal line of familes, it is thought that this is how homosexuality could be transmitted genetically
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Interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus region 3 (INAH3)
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Sexually dimorphic region of the brain that is smaller in females. In homosexual males, it is similar to the female size
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Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
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Radical drops in progesterone as uterus prepares to bleed, creating changes in emotions, pain sensitivity and stress reactions in females. This is likely due to the fact that progesterone binds throughout preoptic area, central hypothalamus and other limbic regions
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Pregnancy
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Implantation causes much sensitivity to emotional stress due to the off-balance of estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone is maintained at high levels and oxytocin/prolcatin secretion is altered
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Parturition
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Suddenly, progesterone levels become low, prolactin levels raise and oxytocin receptors sensitize
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Nursing
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During this phase, menstrual cycles are disrupts normal pulsatile releases of GnRH from hypothalamus, thus LH releases from anterior pituitary gland are disrupted.
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
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A three part response to stress. First is the emergency/alarm reaction with the sympathetic nervous system releasing catecholamines from the adrenal medulla. The second stage involves resistance through the adrenal cortex. The third part is the stage of exhaustion where if intense stress persists, it can lead to bodily failure, illness and death.
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Boredom
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Caused by too little arousal and leaves feelings of little motivation, irritability, decreased heart rate/respiration
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Dopamine
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Neurotransmitter involved with wakefulness and activation in limbic system/cortex.
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Surprise
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Primary emotion involved with the violation of expectations. Stereotyped display of open mouth, gaping eyes and perked ears.
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Arousal
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Variety of processes that control wakefulness, activation, motor behaviour and alertness. Exhibits an inverted U-shaped curve for performance efficiency (too much or too little leads to poor performance)
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Acute Stress Activation
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The sympathetic nervous system releases epinephrine from adrenal medulla to boost sympathetic reflexes. Reticular activation system initiates alertness of sensory information in forebrain . While slow acting, this response also triggers slow acting ACTH from adrenal cortex. Stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine mimic the response.
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CRF
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This hormone from hypothalamus stimulates ACTH release from anterior pituitary gland. During stress response, this occurs alongside enkephalin and endorphin release to help dull pain perception and alter mood.
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Monoamine-Oxidase (MAO)
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This enzyme that breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters is thought to be associated with sensation-seeking behaviour.
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Acetylcholine
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Neurotransmitter associated with parasympathetic nervous system, initiating restorative responses after acute excitement
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Rest (Rebound)
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Parasympathetic in nature, this restorative process is parasympathetic in nature and revolves around circadian rhythms and hormones.
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Sympathetic overarousal
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Can lead to panic attacks, which can lead to maladaptive avoidance behaviour.
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Pituitary-Adrenocortical System
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CRF from hypothalamus leads to ACTH release from anterior pituitary. This causes the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids (cortisol and corticosterone). This causes increase in metabolism and decrease in immune system and growth/reproduction behaviour. These steroids have receptor sites that bind selectively through the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus and septum. They can also break down MAO in the brain to increase the availability of monoamine transporters
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Cortisol
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Hormone most commonly associated with chronic stress. Involved in unfamiliar and frightening situations that lead to anticipation of unpleasant events. Increase in this stress hormone (and others) causes a decrease in sex hormones.
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DHEA
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Adrenal androgen that suppresses actions of stress hormones
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Phase of Exhaustion
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When the adrenal cortex is under chronic stress, the beneficial effects of cortisol are diminished. This leads to neurotransmitter depletionm, physical/mental weakness/illness and pathologies like strokes, ulcers and tumours. Can be prevented/lessened by benefits of social interactions
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PTSD
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Occurs in two phases, acute and stabilized. Where traumatic events cause long-lasting symptoms
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Acute PTSD
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Occurs immediately after the traumatic experience. This involves shock, terror, sleeplessness and sensory disturbances.
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Stabilized PTSD
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Long-term effects of a traumatic experience. Includes paranoia, delusions, depression, headaches, emotional lability, and sleep disturbances.
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Aggression
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While risky behaviour, this occurs for a number of different reasons. Can be predatory, intermale, territorial, defensive/fear-induced, maternal, irritable or instrumental. Irritation/aggression does not always lead to this, it is most commonly caused by threats/appeasement.
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Dominance
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Associated with controlling resource, often leading to social hierarchies in males over women stemming from polygyny.
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Perinatal/Pubertal Testosterone
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In many mammals, this androgen hormone leads to more aggressive and "uncivilized" behaviour. This is shown by male castrations and female injections. However, this relationships is not as evident in humans.
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Social Dominance
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Pubertal testosterone in humans appears to have more of an effect on this than it does on aggression.
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Mice
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In these mammals, male aggression is greatly increased by female presence while female aggression is almost solely based around defence. When winning a competitive exposure, they have increased aggressiveness, assertiveness, sexual activity, catecholamine levels and testi activity. Losers show decrease in LH from pituitary gland, resulting in decrease in GnRH and testosterone. This also causes an increase in adrenal activity for losers.
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Rhesus monkeys
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These primates show much increased testosterone with social dominance. It is very responsive to social changes, and when brought into a new social group there are substantial drops in testosterone.
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Affective Attack
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Emotional "halloween-cat" posture that occurs after stimulation of the medial hypothalamus. Tumours in the medial hypothalamus have been associated the extreme aggresssion.
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Quiet-Biting Attack
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Quick predatory reflex that occurs from stimulation of the lateral
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Amygdala
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Stimulation can cause aggressive attacks on others while lesions can cause tameness. This area, along with temporal lobes are targeted by rabies virus. 10% of temporal lobe epilepsy patients have uncontrollable fits of rage (Charles Whitman has tumour in this area)
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Intermittent Explosive Disorder
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Damage to prefrontal cortex early in life hinders development of impulse/aggression suppression.
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Catecholamines
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These types of neurotransmitters are likely associated with aggressive behaviour because drugs like amphetamines increase aggressiveness.
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Shock-Induced Fighting
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Demonstrates that in mice, frustration can lead to aggressive behaviour (fighting between mice)
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Laughter
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A FAP that diffuses tension/aggression and emerges in the spinal cord reflexes (seen in children without cortices. Likely comes from limbic system/hypothalamus. It is innate and reverses classic stress hormone response.
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Crying
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Has an adaptive value of signaling maternal attention, and is thought to work through CNS,respiratory system, peripheral nervous system and a variety of muscles.
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Anaclitic Depression
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Seen in infants and children who are taken away from their mothers. Results in 1) Initial Protest. 2) Despair with common signs of depression. 3) Detachment, with resistance to form new bonds.
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Depression
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Very similar physiologically to chronic stress (cortisol). Cortisol has a circadian rhythm where it peaks at the end of sleep cycle and decreases throughout the day. However, these people have elevated cortisol all the time and there is a loss of control of adrenal cortex via hypothalamus/pituitary.
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Serotonin
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This neurotransmitter is thought to have a large relationship with affect. Derivative tryptophan has to compete with other amino acids for entrance to the brain (requires serotonin transporter SERT)
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Dexamethasone
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Blocks ACTH binding to adrenal cortex so that cortisol and ACTH are kept in homeostasis.
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Suicide
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Most often done by males who are unsuccessful in heterosexual relationships, and associated with chronic stress and unsolvable problems. May also have a neurochemical and genetic component.
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Parasuicide
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Often noted that unsuccessful attempts are intentional in attempt to be rewarded for survival and receive increased attention.
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Nucleus accumbens septi
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Associated with rewad circuitry and dopaminergic activity
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Anandamide
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Endogenous cannabinoid used in depression treatment
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Beta-Endorphin
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Endorphin that increases affect during times of stress which has concentration of receptors in PAG near 4th ventricle.
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