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326 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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NGF
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Nerve Growth Factor, promotes axon growth and survival of neurons in SNS and some sensory CNS
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NT-3
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Neurotrophin 3, promotes growth of hippocampal, somatosensory, cerebellar neurons
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NT-4/5
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Neurotrophin 4/5, promotes growth of sensory and motor neurons
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NT-6
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neurotrophin 6, similar to NGF, less potent, snsory and SNS nerves
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BDNF
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Nrain Dervied Neurotrophic Factor, Promotes growth of peripheral senspry neurons and CNS neurons whcih do not respond to NGF
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CNTF
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Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor, promotes growth of SNS, PNS, and sensory neurons
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GDNF
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glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor, enhances survivial of midbrain dopaminergic neurons
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EGF
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Epidermal Growth Factor, stimulates cell division in epirdermal cells
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FGFs
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Fibroblast Growth factors, stimulates proliferation of fibroblasts, endothelial cells, blood vessels, neurons, adrenal cells. Found in pituitary
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PDFG
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Platelet Derived Growth Factor, stimulates proliferation of connective tissue and neuroglial cells
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TGF-b
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Transforming Growth factor beta, inhibits response of most cells to other growth factors
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IGF-I and IGF-II
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Insulin-like growth factor I and II, somatomedins, stimulate proliferation of fat and connective tissue cells
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somatomedins
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IGFs, insulin-like growth factors
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IL-3
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Interleukin 3, stimulates stem cell differentiation. Growth Factor
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G-CSF
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Granulocyte Colony Stimulating Factor, stimulates granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells and neutrophils
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M-CSF
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Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor, stimulates granulocyte/macrphage progenitor cells and macrophages
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GM-CSF
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Granulocyte/Macrophage Colony Stimulating factor, stimulates granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells
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What is the difference between growth factors and trophic factors?
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Growth factors regulate cells division, while trophic factors regulate differentiation, survival, phenootypes expression and plasticity as well as growth.
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What growth factors have the following functions?
a. promote nerve survival and axon growth in SNS neuronsn b. promotes growth of hippocampal, cerebellar, and somatosensory neurons? c. stimulates cell division in epidermal cells? d. are also called somatomedins? |
a. FNF
b. NT3 c. EGF d. IGFs |
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What is apoptosis?
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programmed cell death
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how does NGF stimulate development of a bipotential adrenal medula cell?
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FGF stimualtes the development of sympathetic neurons from a bipotential adrenal medulla cell, NGF release from the target cell promotes synaptogenesis and maturation of the neurons
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In a developing synapse, which cell releases NGF?
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The post synaptic cell
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What type of receptors do NGF and other neurotrophins bind?
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tyrosine kinase and p75
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There are at least 10 ways that neurotrophic factors could stimulate biochemical changes in their target cells. If NGF were found to elevate tyrosine hydroxylase in a cell a) what kind of cell would this be and b) what would be the result of the increased tyrosine hydroxylase?
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a. monoamine containing cell
b. more dopamine (or NA or A) being produced |
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What are 4 different ways that growth factors prevent apaptosis?
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actviating BCL-2, inhibiting p53, inhibit the endonuclease, increase metabolism
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Where would you find the testes determining factor?
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TDF is a peptide coded by the TDF gene on the SRY region of the Y chromosome
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What is Turner's Syndrome?
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45X0 chromosomal abnormality. Affected individuals are females
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Why do the Mullerian ducts not develop in a male?
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The sertoli cells begin to secrete Mullerian inhibiting substance
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Why do the wolfian ducts not develop in a female?
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A lack of mullerian inhibiting substance caueses the wolfian ducts to regress
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What is alpha fetoprotein and what does it do?
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a-fetoprotein is a carrier protein which is synthesized in the liver and binds to estrogen in te blood of neonatal females. this prevents estrogen from binding to estrogen receptors and masculinizing the female
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How does testosterone masculinize the SDN-POA of rats and humans?
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Testosterone inceases the cell size and nuber of cells
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Describe the sex differences in the HPG feedback systmem
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Gonadal estrogen stimulates LH secretion in females, gonadal testosterone and estrogen inhibits LH secretion in males
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What two problems are suffered by people with Kallman's syndrome?
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Hypogonadism and lack of a sense of smell
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what is androgen insensitivity syndrome and what is the rat model of this disorder?
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AIS is otherwise known as testicular femiinization syndrome. It occurs as a result of a lack of androgen receptors. Affected individuals have testes, but female external genitals. In the rat model, castrating a male on post natal dat 1 will demonstrate the same pattern of development.
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Which pituitary hormones stimulate the Leydig cells and which stimulate the sertoli cells of the testes and which hormones are produced by each of these cells?
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Lh stimulates Leydig cells leading to testosterone release, FSH is needed to stimulate sertoli cells, leading to inhibin release
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Which two hormones re required for spermatogenesis?
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spermatogenesis requires FSH and testosterone
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In seasonally reproducing species, suc as white- tailed deer, what changes in physiology and behaviour are associtaed with the rise of testosteron in the breeding season?
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Increases testes size,spermatogenesis, increased antles growt, increased mating behaviour, increased agressive behaviour
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Describe the 3 phases of the standard hormone removal and replacement experiment
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Baseline, removal and replacement.
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Why must individual differences be considered when analyzing the efects of testosterone on sexual behaviour
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These differences are independent of testosterone levels. For example, guinea pigs which are high maters before castration are high maters after HR and low maters before are low maters after. Thus the difference is not due to hormones levels
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Why must species differences be considered when analyzing the effect of testosterone?
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Some species, such as rats, show rapid decline in sexual behaviour following castration, whereas other species, such as dogs, may not. Sexual experience may maintain behaviour in the absence of hormones.
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Discuss the effects of dominance status and female stimulation on testosterone levels of male monkeys
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Dominant males have higher testosterone than males. Testosterone levels rise in presences of a female. When confronted with dominant males, testosterone levels drop.
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Discuss the interaction of organizational and activational effects of androgens on agressive behaviour in mice.
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Female mice given testosterone on prenatal day 1 and then given testosterone injections in adulthood show high, male-like levels of aggression. Females given oil on prenatal day 1 and then given testosterone in adulthood show low levels of aggression
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What effect does taking anabolic steroids by a normal male have on spermatogenesis and why does this occur?
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Reduced spermatogenesis as a result of increased negative feedback on GnRH, LH and FSH
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Define the following:
a) primordial follicle b)Graafian follicle c)Corpus luteum d)corpus albicans |
a) primitive, undeveloped follicle
b) maturing follicle, has been stimulated by FSG c) follicle after ovulation when it is secreting progesterone d) dead, white follicle which is no longer secreting progesterone |
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What changes occur in the endometrium of the uterus during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?
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progesterone causes a thickening of the endometrium of the uterus and the development of glands and blood vessels to ready the endometrium for implantation.
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Which of the cells of the follicle produce estrogen and which produce progesterone?
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the granulosa cels produce estrogen and the luteal cells roduce progesterone
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Why are the vaginal secretions of rats used as a bioassay for the stages of the estrus cycle?
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the cell structure of the vagina changes over the estrus cycle from epithelial cells to cornified cells during estrus, thus the stage of the estrus cycle ad the hormone state of the female can be determined non-invasively
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What are the three aspects of female rat sexual behaviour as identified by Beach?
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attractivity, proceptivity, receptivity
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How do you determine the phases od the menstrual cycle in females?
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Follicular phase begins after menstruation and ends at ovulation and the luteal phase begins at ovulation and ends at menstruation
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How do sexual behaviour, activity levels, agression, and feeding change at estrus in female rats?
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Sexual behaviour and activity levels increase, while agression and feeding behaviour decrease.
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What is amenorrhea?
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failure to menstruate
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How do birth control pills work?
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they contain low amounts of estrogen which provides negative feedback on FSH and prevents the development of the Graafian follicle, thus there is no estrogen released by the ovary. The lack of estrogen surge inthe follicular hase eliminates the positive feedback of estrogen on LH and thus there is no LH surge. Without the LH surge, ovulation does not occur and no corpus luteum forms, so there is no progesterone secretion. The pill also contains progesterone to make up for this defecit.
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What phase of the menstrual cycle is known as the premenstrual phase and what hormonal changes ovvur during this period?
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It is the late-luteal phase and there is a rapid drop in progesterone and estrogen levels
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What phase of the human menstrual cycle is associated with the following:
a) highest level of positive feedback b) highest levek of sexual activity c) most sensitive to odours d) most sensitive to pain and cold |
a) around ovulation
b) arond ovulation and second peak premenstrually c) follicular phase d) luteal phase |
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What symptoms characterize PMS?
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tiredness, irritability, bloating, depression, inflammation, water retention, painful joints, swollen ankles
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What symptoms of PMS are the following treatments meant to "cure":
a) progesterone therapy b)MAO inhibitors c) Aspirin d) diuretics |
a) low progesterone levels
b) low NE/ high MAO levels c) elevated prostoglandin levels d) water retention and bloating |
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Infertility in women often occurs because of a failure to ovulate. In this case, ovulation is induced hormonally. What is the procedure for this?
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First PMSG is used, which acts like FSH to induce development od theGraafian follicle. Next clomiphene, which is anti estrogen and blocks estrogen receptors in the brain, inhibitng negative feedback on FSH. Next HCG is injected to induce ovulation.
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What are the 3 main problems in using Aschem-ZOndek mouse test as a pregnancy test?
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1) great possibility of false positives because the mouse is a spontaneous ovulator
2) It takes 96 hours 3) false positives can occur with high LH levels as well |
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Why s double labellin important for the most accurate immunological pregnancy test?
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Double lanelling is important as the alpha subunit is homologous to LH. By double labelling, the alpha-beta subunit of HCG can be reliably bound, along with the alpha subunit
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What two endocrine glands secrete progesterone during pregnancy?
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Corpus luteum and placenta
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What is the function of relaxin?
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relaxes the ligaments surrounding th ebirth canal, facilitating parturition
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Which hormone secreted during pregnancy inhibits the release of insulin, thus causing pregnancy related diabetes?
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HPL
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Name the four hormones secreted by the placenta during pregnancy
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HCG, HPL, progesterone and estrogen
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Describe how changes in progesterone levels stimulate parturition
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Progesterone levels remain high during pregnancy. When progesterone levels drop, parturition begins. If progesterone levels remain high for too long, parturition is delayed
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How might the feto-placental unit control the timing of parturition?
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By reducing the secretion of progesterone and by increasing the release of estrogen and or cortisol, which stimulates prostoglandin release. Prostoglandins sensitize the uterine muscles (myometirum) to oxytocin hich causes contractions at birth
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How do prolactin and oxytocin interact to control lactation?
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prolactin stimulates milk secretion from the aiveoli during lactation and oxytocin stimulates contraction of the basket cells around the alveoli to contract, ejecting milk
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What stimulates the release of prolctin during lactation?
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The pups suckling at the nipple stimulates prolactin release
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When do female rate begin to show maternal behaviour?
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Nest building begins approximately 4 days before parturition. However, broadly defined, maternal behaviour begins at conceptios
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What is post-partum estrus in the rat and what causes it?
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Ovulation that occurs quickly after birth. It arises as a result of the elevated estrogen levels that occur just before birth.
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What four hormones appear necessary to stimualte parental behaviour in female rats?
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Estrogen, progesterone, PRL and oxytocin
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In which are of the brain does estrogen stimulate maternal behaviour most rapidly and why does this occur?
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MPOA, rich in estrogen receptors. Infusion of estradiol into this brain area induces maternal behaviour. This brain region appears to be the locus of parrental behaviour
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What is lactational amenorrhea and why does it occur?
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It is a result of the suppression of the menstrual cycle during lactation. PRL inhibits GnRH, LH and FSH. It is not a reliable method of birth control
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Under what conditions does the parental behaviour shown by male mice increase pup survival?
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harsh environmental conditions.
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Describe how the 3 phases of Selye's "General Adaptation Syndrome". Explain the physiological and behavioural responses of the body to stress.
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Three phases of GAS are the alarm, resisitance and exhaustion phases. Alarm occurs to the sudden onset of the stressor. If the stress continues, the body tries to resist it and adapt, but expends energy during this adaptation process. Finally, after prolonged stress, exhaustion sets in as the body breaks down from prolonged resistance to the stressor.
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What is the difference between eustress and distress and why are both equally stressful?
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Eustress id "pleasant" stress such as a wedding or xmas, while distress in unpleasant stress, such as illness or death. both types of stress take the body away from "baseline" state and thus must be adapted to.
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What roles do the two branches of the ANS systme play in the stress response?
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Sympathetic is aroused during stress and elevates blood pressure, heart rate, etc. Parasympathetic tries to relax ANS and bring blood pressure, heart rate, etc.back to baseline.
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What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic responses to stress and how are they controlled?
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The SNS is catabolic, expending energy, while the PNS is anabolic, building energy.
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Why is adrenalin from the adrenal medulla released faster than glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex in response to stress?
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Because adrenalin release is controlled by the nerves of the SNS. Glucocorticoids are released slowly because the depend on CRH and ACTH secretion which is slower.
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name four homrones wich are released in stress and act as catabolic hormones to provide energy in response to stress
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Adrenaline, GH, glucagon, cortisol
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Why do high levels of stress often result in illness? What is the hormonal connection between stress and illness?
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Stress elevates CRH, ACTH, and corticosteroids. Corticosteroids suppress the immune system.
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What gene on the Y chromosome is thought to be responsible for masculinization? What happens to females with this gene on the X chromosome?
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SRY gene. if on X xhromosome, female is masculinizd
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What is Turner's syndrome?
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45XO, female with ovaries that fail to secrete hormones, no barr body.
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What is mulitple X syndrome?
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47XXX or 48XXXX, mostly normal female development, may be taller nd thinner
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What is Kleinfelter's Syndrome?
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47XXY or 48XXXY, male development with barr bodies,so some feminization. testes don't secrete sperm, and there is abnormal masculinization at puberty.
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What is multiple Y syndrome?
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47XYY or 48XYYY, male development with reduced feritlity
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What is a tru hermaphrodite?
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An individual with both male and female gonads
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What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?
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The person has a defect in the gene that codes for androgen receptors so they are genetically male but externally female. X-linked disease.
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What is congenital adrenal hypoplasia (CAH)?
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The enzyme that converts precursor to cortisol, so no cortisol is released. It instead spills over into the adrenal androgen pathway and is converted in testosterone.Can occur in men or women. In women causes masculinization of external genitalia so they look somewhere in between.
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What is McGinnley Syndrome?
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Does not produce 5a-reductase so testosterone is not converted to 5a-DHT. 5a-DHT is what masculinizes external genitalia, so at birth they look like girls, but develop into boys at puberty.
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What is a freemartin?
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A calf twin that is masculinized because of influence of testosterone of the male twin
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What is Kallman's syndrome?
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hypogonadism, there is a deficiency in GnRH. Causes delayed puberty in both ,ales and females as well as a lack of a sense of smell.
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What effect does estrogen have on LH before and after in males? On PRL? What causes the change?
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Estrogen stimulates LH release before and then switches to negative feedback. Testosterone effects GnRH to make this change. Estrogen does not stimulate PRL, there is a low baseline level in males
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What effect does estrogen have on LH and PRL in females? How is LH released?
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Estrogen stimulates both LH and PRL in females, stimulates cyclic relelase of LH in surges every 2834 days
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What effect does estrogen have on LH-RH when it is injected into males? Females?
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Negative feedback in males, positive in females/
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What hormone is responsible for external masculinization?
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5alpha-DHT
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What hormone is thought to cause masculinization of the brain during the critical period?
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Aromatized testosterone: estrogen
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If estrogen causes masculinization of the brain, how do females avoid masculine brain development? (4 ways)
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1. a-fetoprotein binds to estrogen to deactivate it
2. secretion of progesterone 3. Metabnolize estrogen to an inactive form 4. Have less estrogen receptors |
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What are five influences of testosterone on neural development (neonatal and adult)?
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1. Number of nerves developeing (neonatal)
2. Neurite growth (neonatal and adults) estrogen too 3. Neural size and form- increase (neonatal and adults) 4. Biochemical processes- (neonatal and adults) influence on enzyme level and nt receptors 5. Influence on steroids, alter neural sensitivity to steroids (# of receptors) |
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Wha tis the masculinization rheostat?
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levels of androgens control masculinization of brain
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What are 6 biological bases of definition for sex?
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chromosomal, internal gonads, hormonal, internal genitals,.accessory sex organs, external genitals
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What are 3 psycho-social bases for defining sex?
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Gender of rearing, gender identity, gender role
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What are the internal gonads?
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Ovaries vs. testes
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What are the internal genitals?
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vas deferens vs. fallopian tubes and uterus
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What are the accessory sex organs?
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Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts vs. skene's gland, bartholin's gland
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What growth factor activates development of the testes? WHat do the testes develop from? What two hormones do the testes then excrete?
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TDF activates development of the testes from the medulla, they then excrete androgens and MIS
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Which ducts dvelop into the epididymus and vas deferens, and which ducts degeneerate on the male?
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Wolfian ducts develop, mulleriean ducts degenerate
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What develops into the penis? What develops into male accessory glands?
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genital tubercle forms the penis, urethral primordia forms accessory gands
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What develops into the ovaries in females? What do then then secrete? What ducts develop
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Crotex develops into the ovaries which produce low levels of estrogen. Mullerian ducts develop into the fallopian tubes while the wolfian ducts degenerate.
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What forms the clitoris and labia in the female? What forms the vagina? What forms the accesspry glands?
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Genital tubercle becomes the clitoris, genital folds become the labia, urgenital sinus forms the vagins, urethral primordia forms the accessory glands.
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What are the four examples of sexually dimorphic brain circuits given in class?
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1. The nucleus of the pre-optic area in rats- larher in males than females
2. Regions that control birdsong, males sing and have larger cell clusters 3. Spinal nucleus of th ebulbocavernosis in rodents, larger in males due to androgens tjat prevent cell death 4. HPG feedback |
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What happens to sexually dimorphic behaviours (of sexually dimorphic brain regions described in class) when a male is castrated, or a female is treated with androgens?
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A castrated male will resemble a female if castrated, and vice-cersa for females treated with androgens
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Why is it important to take maturational stage into account as wellas chronological age when measuring development?
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Chronological age does not take individul differences into accoutn.
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What are longitudinal and cross-sectional expermintal designs?
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Longitudinal foollows the sam eindividual over a period of time, cross-sectional compares different individuals at different stages.
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What is the range of modifiability?
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The degree to which and individual can develop differentaly if their internal or external environment is varied
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what is a critical period
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a period of time during which the presence of an external or internal stimuli is necessary for development
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What is a sensitive period?
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a period of time during which internal or external conditions can affect the development of the nervous systme
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What is a vulnerable period?
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A special case of a critical or sensitive period during which the presence of an external or internal stimulus can negatively affect the nervous system
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What is an optimal period?
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A special case of a critical or sensitive period during which an internal or external stimulus can positively affect the nervous system.
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What parameters can be used to define critical or sensitive periods?
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onset, duration, offset, timing, system/pathway affected, specificity, variability, modifiablility.
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What parameters can be used to study critical and sensitive periods?
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Locus, outcome, timing, duration, reversablity
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What is teratology?
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Study of congenitally deformed fetuses
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What is a teratogen?
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agents that cause deformations, may be drugs, chemicals, infections, or high levels of ionizing radiation.
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What developmental defects may alcohol have on a fetus?
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FAS, intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR)
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What developmental defects may androgens have on a developing fetaus?
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masculinization of a female fetus
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What developmental affects may cocaine have on a fetus?
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IGUR, microcephaly, neurobehavioural disturbances
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What developmental affects may thalidomide have on a fetus?
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abnormal development of limbs
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What devlelopmental affects may rubella virus have on a fetus?
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postnatal growth retardation
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What are test batteries, why are they used?
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Tests that measure changes in developmental parameters (physical, behavioural) to determine normal development. Can identify developmental disabiliteis.
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What sorts of tests may be performed on rats to examine development? What is an example of abnormal development in mice?
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Tests may look at physical, developmental reflexes, spontaneous movements, activity in a novel environment, sensory function, learnign ability, social behaviour.
Jimpy mice have a genetic disorder that causes demylination of CNS. They are smaller, less vocal ,move around less, and shw decine in self grooming. |
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What types parameters might be used to test normal human development? What is an example of this?
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physical, reflexes, gross and fine motor skilld, sensory, cognitive, language, mral, social-emotional, sexual.
Blind babies stand up holding furniture later, and reach for auditory stimuli later than normal babies reach for visual stimuli. |
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What kinds of external stimuli might influence fetal development?
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tetarogens, nutrition, disease, mothers stress.
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When is the fetus not susceptible to tetarogens? When would tetarogens cause major morphological defects? When would tetarogens cause physiological defects and minor morphological defects?
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The fetus is not susceptible to tetarogens 1-2weeks, from 3-7 weeks major morpholigcal defects may occur, mor than 8 weeks, minor morphological and physiological defects may occur.
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How do hormones ifnluence development?
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Hormones activate a 2nd messenger cascade which leads to transcription of genes, which leads to production of proteins which can cause growth of somatic and neural cells.
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How do hormones affects behavioural development?
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Leads to DNA transcription which influences growth of neural and somatic cells. Combination of neural and muscles growth determines behaviour potential
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What are the five ways that hormones influence neural development?
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1. alter # of neurons
2. alter growth of neurites 3. alter neural size and dendritic branching 4. alter enzyme levels and biochemical processes 5. alter # of receptors, hormones binding, and accumulation of hormones |
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What are the five differences between organizational and activational effects?
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1. Permenent vs. short term
Organizational occurs prenatally, activational occur later in life 3. Organizational can only occur during critical or sensitive periods, activational can only occur after the organizational, but doesn't have to be during a special period. Organizational causes permanent structural changes, activational causes transient modulation of neurotransmitters 5. Organizational are more important for masculinization than feminiztion while activational are symmetrical with respect to gender |
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What are the Tanner stages of puberty?
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Way of describing stages of puberty, using age ranges. 5 stages, compares females and males.
1. Girls only, thelarche 2. Andrenarche for girls, Teste growth in boys 3. Hair and breast growth in girls, penis growth in boys 4. Menarche, pubic hair and growth spurt in boys 5. Girls mature, boys mature genitals and hair. |
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What is thelarche? What tanner stage?
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onset of breast growth in girls. Tanner stage 1
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What is adrenarche? What tanner stage?
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initiation of pubic hair due to adrenal androgens. Tanner stage 2
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What is gonadarche?
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activation of the HPG system
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What is menarche? What tanner stage?
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first menstrual period. Tanner stage 4
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What is the critical weight theory?
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there is specific weight that must be reached to activate the onset of puberty.
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What are the hormonal changes during puberty for girls?
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FSH rises at thelarche and conitnues until monthly surges in adult
LH rises at menarche until adult surges Estradiol surges some at menarche, then follow adult patterns Progesterone remains low through thelarche and menarceh until adult patterns commence. |
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What are the hormonal changes during puberty for males?
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FSH rises at 10-11
Teststerone rises 11-12 LH rises 12-13 |
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What are the metabolic effects of androgens?
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growth of penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, and prostate, maturation of sperm cells, hair growth, scalp hair recession, deepens voice, height growth, increases mass of hemoglobn, increases size and number of muscle cells, thickens skin, decreases fat, promotes sex drive, provides negative feedback on LH-RH.
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What are the metabolic effects of estrogen?
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Increases uterine, endometrial, and vaginal growth, induces duct proliferation of the breasts, influences fat deposition and distribution, accelerates skeletal maturation, inhibits peripheral action of GH and increases GH release, increases levels of carrier proteins, shifts from negative feedback on LH to positive after puberty.
|
|
|
What are the metabolic effects of progesterone?
|
Stimulates growth and differentiation of endometrial cells, desensitizes myometirum to oxytocin, inhibits secretory activity of cervical glands, shifts vaginal epithelium to an intermediate cell pattern, develops aveaolar system of breast tissue, increases body temperature, provides negative feedback on GnRH
|
|
|
How do we know that the gonads, the pituitary, and the HPG axis are not responsible for the pnset pf suberty?
|
They are all functional before puberty under experimental condiitons.
|
|
|
What effect do lesions in the anterior hypothalamus and amygdaa have on puberty? WHat does this mean for theories of the cause of puberty onset?
|
Accelerates puberty therefore the onset of puberty is probably controlled by hypothalamis release of FSH-LH-RH
|
|
|
What are the two systems responsible for puberty onset in gonadostat theory?
|
1. Feedback sensitivity of LH-RH
2. pulsatile generator in arcuate nucleus |
|
|
WHat is the gonadostat theory?
|
Before puberty there is a high sensitivity to negative feedback on LH-RH, sensitiviy changes at puberty allowing for more release of LH and FSH. Also cells in the arcuate nucleus that release NE firs at a low rate, firing rate increases at puberty, causes LH surges.
|
|
|
What effect do opioids have on the gonadostat?
|
They decrease receptors on NE neurons as puberty approaches allowing the neuron to fire more frequently, increases neural firing of NE neurons, increase in release of NE.
|
|
|
What is the opiostat theory?
|
opiates inhibit NE release before puberty, low LH. At puberty there is an increase of steroid receptors on opioid neuronswhich inhibit relase of opiates, this allows for increase in release of NE. During organizational period in males the sensitivity of the opioid system to androgens is altered, this allows for continouos release of LH after puberty instead of surges.
|
|
|
What does naloxone do?
|
It's an opiate antagonist, it acclerates puberty.
|
|
|
What external factors may influence puberty?
|
daylight cycles, nutrition, stress, and pheromones
|
|
|
How would daylight influence puberty?
|
Opiates are released cyclically due to melatonin before puberty. If this cycle is altered, release of opiates may be altered, and puberty onset ay be altered.
|
|
|
How might nutriiton influence puberty?
|
Starvation delays puberty because of altered levels og glucose, glucagaon, and insulin.
|
|
|
How do pheromones influence puberty?
|
Male mouse urine odours accelerate puberty in female mice.
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|
|
WHat factors could be causes for the decline in age of puberty since 1830s?
|
Nurtiriton, social factors, stress, ligt cycles, pheromones, social rearing.
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|
|
What are the two cell types of the testes? What do they each secrete? What hormone are they stimulated by?
|
1. sertoli cells, secrete inhibin, stimulated by FSH
2. leydig cells. secrete androgens and estradiol, stimulated by LH |
|
|
Where are the sertoli cells located? What do they produce?
|
In the seminiferous tubules of the testes, they produce sperm
|
|
|
What will happen to the epididymus, accessory glands, and penis if testosterone is increased during development?
|
They will increase in size
|
|
|
What two hormones stimulate spermatogenesis?
|
FSH and testosterone
|
|
|
What effects do these hormones have on spermatogenesis and how?
1. testosterone 2. FSH 3. LH 4. Inhibin |
1. Testosterone is produced by the leydig cells and acts on the sertoli cells to stimulate sperm production
2. FSH acts on sertoli cells to stimulate sperm production 3. LH stimuates leydig cells to release testosterone, which is necessary for spermatogenesis 4. Inhibin is produced by sertoli cells to inhibit FSH-LH, there by inhibiting sperm production |
|
|
What effect does testosterone have on LH-RH?
|
Negative
|
|
|
What are the 3 phases of male behavioural experiments?
|
baseline, hormone removal, hormone replacement
|
|
|
What are 3 techniques used to remove hormones in male behavioural experimnets?
|
surgical removal of the gland, pharmacological antagonists, immunological antibodies
|
|
|
What are three techniques of HRT in male behavioural experimenst?
|
surgical (whole gland replacement), purified hormone, synthetic hormone
|
|
|
What is the difference in effects of castration at birth vs. castration later in life?
|
Castration at birth inhibits secondary sex characterisitcs as well as behavioural, in adulthood only affects behaviour
|
|
|
What are some testosterone dependent behaviours?
|
sexual behaviour, aggression, scent-marking, ultrasonic vocalizations, inhibition of parental care
|
|
|
What are the 2 phases of sexual behaviour in rats? What are the related behaviours?
|
1.appetitive or courtship- sexual arousal, M/F interactions, attentive to odour, touching, nudging, licking.
2. Consumatory/copulatory- mounting, penile intromission, penile thrusting, ejaculation, aggression, olfactory investigation, scent-marking, vocalizations |
|
|
What hormone activity causes sexual excitement in males?
|
Burst of LH causes a burst in testosterone
|
|
|
What is the effect of castration in adult cats, rats, dogs, and monkeys?
|
Cats and rats show a gradual decline to almost zero sexual activity, monkeys show a gradual decline to 60%, dogs show almost no decline in sexual activity.
|
|
|
What is the effect of HRT on recently castrated males vs. a longer time period?
|
If immediate HRT requires lower dosage, after long periods of time higher doses are required to return to normal due to down regulation of receptors
|
|
|
true or false/ Estrogen can stimulate sexual behaviour in males in large doses.
|
True
|
|
|
What effect does adult castration have in human males? Is HRT effective?
|
No effect on secondary sex characterisitcs, lose interest in sexual behaviour, no semen production.
HRT gradually returns males to normal. Individual differences play a role.Many outside factors contribute to behaviours resulting from castration |
|
|
What effect do androgens have on aggression?
|
Possibly none, correlation, but not causal
|
|
|
What two factors may contribute to the high correlation between androgens and sggression in animals?
|
1. lack of stress/fear in more aggressive (dominant) males
2. More contact with females |
|
|
Does aggression increase, decresase, or stay the same in:
1. females exposed to testosterone on day 1 2. females exposed to testosterone in adulthood 3. males castrated at birth and exposed to testosterone in adulthood |
1. increase
2. no change 3. no change |
|
|
What effect does stress have on testosterone?
|
negativef, cotrocosteroids inhibit testosterone
|
|
|
What are some phsychological effects of steroids in male body builders?
|
mood change, increased aggression, reduced sex drive
|
|
|
What are some physical effects of steroids in male body builders?
|
breast enlargement, reduction of LH anf FSH, decrease of sperm production
|
|
|
What does viagra do?
|
no effect on sexual behaviour, increases cGMP which leadsa to vasodilation in the penis
|
|
|
What effect does progesterone have on androgens?
|
inhibitory
|
|
|
How are oxytocin and vasopressin involved in male sexual behaviour?
|
Released during sexual behaviour, effects smooth muscles, blood pressure and brains
|
|
|
What are the constraints on activational effects of gonadal hormones on behaviour?
|
species of animal studied, organizational effects of perinatal hormones, genetically controlles susceptibility to gonadal hormones, number of hormone receptors, past experience, stress, other hormones, diet, drugs, individual differences, circadian and circannual rhythms
|
|
|
Explain the guinea pig example of individual differences in male sexual behaviour.
|
Males that underwent sex behaviour experiments, pretest, castration, HRT. If they had lower sexual behaviour levels before castration, then the same dosage of hormone would retunr them to low levels while those with higher would return tho higher
|
|
|
Describe the HPG axis in females
|
Nerve cell release nt (NA) which stimulates GnRH release from the hypothalamus, which stimulates LH and FSH release from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, activin, and follistatin release from the gonads, which effect endometrial cells.
|
|
|
What feedback effects do each of these hormones have within the HPG axis?
1. Inhibi 2. activin 3. follistatin 4. estrogen 5. progesterone |
1. inhibits FSH (short loop)
2. Stimulates FSH (short-loop) 3. inhibits activin 4. stimulates FSH and LH 5. inhibits GnRH |
|
|
What are the phases of the estrous cycle? How long does it last?
|
4-5 days, proestrus, estrus, metestrus, diestrus
|
|
|
What happens in proestrus?
|
later follicular phase, sexual activity, graafian follicle forms
|
|
|
What happens in estrus?
|
ovulatory phase, sexual activity, follicle ruptures, LH surge
|
|
|
What happens in metestrus?
|
luteal phase, FSH surgs, corpus luteum, progesterone
|
|
|
What happens in diestrus?
|
late luteal phase, corpus albicans
|
|
|
Describe the steps of follicular development
|
1. FSH sttimulates primary follicel which enlrages to form graafian follicle
2. graafian follicle secretes estrogen 3. LH surge causes ovulation, granulaose breaks, follicle ruptures, ovum is released into fallopian tubes 4. corpus luteum forms, secretes progesterone 5.corpus luteum forms corpus albicans which secretes progesterone |
|
|
What is the primary follicel?
|
FSH causes it to form the graafian follicle
|
|
|
What are the two parts of the graafian follicle, what does it secrete?
|
ovum and granulose layer which secretes estrogen
|
|
|
What causes the granulose layer of the graafian follicle to rupture?
|
LH surge
|
|
|
What does the corpus luteum secrete?
|
progesterone
|
|
|
What does the corpus albicans secrete?
|
nothing
|
|
|
describe hormone secretion over the estrous cycle
|
FSH surge in metestrus, estrogen secreted from graafian follicle, estrogen causes LH surge, Lh causes follicle to burst and ovulation, estrogen levels drop, corpus luteum secretes progesterone, corpus albicans stops progesterone secretion.
|
|
|
Describe vaginal cell growth during proestrus, metestrus, and diestrus.
|
proestrus- uterus enlarges
metestrus- uterus decreases diestrus- small uterus |
|
|
When does menses occur, what are the hormone levels?
|
After progesterone declines in the late luteal phase, progesterone and estrogen are very low.
|
|
|
What are the phases of the menstrual cycle?
|
follicular- up to ovulation
luteal- ovulation to beginning of menses, includes pre-menstrual menatrual |
|
|
What are the changes in vaginal lining in 4 phases of menstrual cycles?
|
Follicular=proliferative
Luteal=secretory Premenstrual= ischemic menstrual |
|
|
What happens to hormones levels if the egg is fertilized?
|
Egg produces HCG which maintains corpus luteum, high progesterone levels. After corpus luteum degenerates, placenta secretes progesterone
|
|
|
In what two ways does the estrous cycle differ from the menstrual cycle?
|
1. presence of menstrual phase
2. sexual receptivity occurs throughout menstrual cycle, is limitesd to estrus period in estrous cycle |
|
|
What is amenorrhea?
|
Failure to mesntruate
|
|
|
What is dysmenorrhea?
|
Painful or difficult mesntruation
|
|
|
What is Menorrhagia?
|
Excessive menstrual bleeding
|
|
|
What is oligo menaorhhea?
|
Infrequent or irregular menstrual bleeding
|
|
|
What hormones are in OCPs? How do they work?
|
Estrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen provides negative feedback to FSH and inhibits estrogen surge, which means there is no positive feedbakc on LH, so no ovulation, no corpus luteum, no progesterone surge. Since estrogen and progesterone maintian the endometrium, the last few pills conatin no hormone to allow levels to decline and menstruation |
|
|
What are the side effects of OCPs?
|
1. increased risk of heart attack, blood clots
2. reduction in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone levels causes reduced sexual behaviour, breast enlargement, decreased menstrual bleeding, weight gain, water retnention, headache, nauseam cramps 3. May be increased risk of breast cancer 4. May increase depression or nervousness |
|
|
What group is at the highest risk when taking OCPs?
|
Women over the age of 40 who smoke
|
|
|
how does the morning after pill work?
|
estrogen prevents implantation of embryo
|
|
|
What does attractivity refer to in terms of the estrus cycle?
|
How attractive the female makes herself tothe potential male.
|
|
|
What does proceptivity refer to in terms of the estrous cycle?
|
active solicitation on the part of the female
|
|
|
What does receptivity refer to in terms of the estrous cycle?
|
active acceptance of mounting and copulating
|
|
|
What is lordosis?
|
The extend that the female curves her back to accept male mounting
|
|
|
When are acceptivity, proceptivity, and receptivity highest iin the female? What are two other behaviours that increase? What behaviours decrease? What hormone is at high levels during this period?
|
during estrus. Also increase in activity and olfactory. aggression, feeding, pain perception, and emotionality decline during estrus.Estrogen is high.
|
|
|
What effect does progesterone have on female sexual behaviours?
|
Decreases
|
|
|
What behaviours increase during ovulation in women?
|
Temperature increases just after ovulation, sexual intercourse, positive feelings, blood pressure, sensitivity to visual, auditory, and tactile stimuli
|
|
|
What happens to appetite during ovulation?
|
decreases
|
|
|
What happens to body temperature over the menstrual cycle?
|
Drops at ovulation, then increases just after.
|
|
|
What happens to body weight over the menstrual cycle?
|
Drops after ovulation, increases pre-menstrually
|
|
|
What menstrual phase causes increased heart rate?
|
luteal phase
|
|
|
What happens to positive and negative feelings over the menstrual cycle?
|
Positive increase during ovulation. negative feelings decrease during ovulation, but increase during menstruation
|
|
|
When during the menstrual cycle is sensitivity to pain and cold low? High?
|
low during ovulation, increases durin g premenstrual
|
|
|
When are allergies highest during menstrual cycle?
|
menstruation
|
|
|
What is PMS? What are the symptoms?
|
progesterone and estrogen levels decrease. Tiredness, irritability, depression, tension, headache, inflammation, water retention, backache, sore brests
|
|
|
What are likely causes of PMS?
|
withdrawal of origesterone or estrogen, imbalance of estrogen or progesterone, increase in sodium due to water retnention, low dopmamine, low NE, luteal opiate withdrawal, high prostoglandin levels,
|
|
|
What is PMDD?
|
premenstrual dysphoric disorder. More sever than PMS, debilitating to everyday life
|
|
|
What are the treatments for PMDD?
|
fluoxine (prozac), tricyclice, antidepressants, leudprolide (GnRH agonist).
|
|
|
What are some treatments for PMS?
|
progesterone therapy, lithium (treats sodium increase), dopamine agonists, MAO inhibitors, naloxone (reduces rise in luteal opiates), prostoglandin inhibitors, psychotherapy, tranquilizers
|
|
|
What are growth factors?
|
peptides which stimulate/inhibit cell division, regulate cell growth and development. Most hav eautocrine or paracrine functions
|
|
|
How are growth factors synthesized, stored, released, and deactivated?
|
They are synthesized from pre-ro peptides and propeptides in neural and non-neural cells. They are stored in secretory vesicels and released by exocytosis. They are deactivated by petidase enzymes
|
|
|
What are the 3 groups of growth factors? Why are they arbitrary?
|
Somatotrophic, neurotrophic, and cytokine. THese groups are oversimplified because there are many growth factors that can modulate neural gorwht and differentiation that are not considered growth factors.
|
|
|
What are two somatotrophic factors, what do they do?
|
1. EGF- stimulates skin cells.
2. FGF- timulates fibriblast proliferation, endothelial cells as well as blood vessels, neurons, and adrenal cells |
|
|
What are somatomedins?
|
Insulin-like growth factors. IGF-1 and IGF-2. stimalte profliferation of fat and conective tissue cellls
|
|
|
WHat are two neurotrophic factors, what do they do?
|
1. NGF- promotes axon growth and survival of neurons in the SNS and some sensory cells of CNS
2. BDNF- promotes growth of peripheral sensory neurons and CNS neurons which do not respond to NGF |
|
|
Give an example of a cytokine growth factor.
|
IL-3- stimulates stem cell proliferation
|
|
|
What is the difference between trophic factors and growth factors?
|
Trophic factors are growth factors that regulate cell differentiation, survival, and phenotype expression and plasticity as well as growth
|
|
|
What three types of receptors do growth factors act on?
|
metabotropic, Tyrosine kinase, and p75
|
|
|
What are 4 types of second messengers activated by growth factors?
|
MAP kinases, PIP2-DAG-IP3, cAMP/cGMP, Calcium
|
|
|
What happens when a growth factor binds to a Trk receptor?
|
the Trk receptor is a dimer, it autophosphorylates when activated, activates a second messenger system. Determines whether a cell can enter growth phases Ga/s-phase
|
|
|
What brain region has the most growth factor receptors?
|
hippocampus
|
|
|
What are the 10 ways to determine and measure growth factor activity?
|
1. Increase in total DNA content in the brain
2. Metabolic activity, uptake of glucose, O2, ions. 3. Development of cell membrane, increase in faty acids 4. Increase in mRNA 5.Increase in protein synthesis 6. Increased amino acid uptake 7. Increase in biosynthetic enzymes 8. Increase in nt, steroid, and neuropeptide receptors 9. Increase in nt synthesis and storage 10. Increase in nt degredation |
|
|
In the growth of sympathetic nerve ganglia, What GF stimulates growth and what GF promotes formation of synapses, which cell releases it?
|
FGF stimulates neurons to extend axons to target tissue. Target cells release NGF to promote formation of synapses
|
|
|
What 3 things may trigger apoptosis?
|
1. T cells
2. TNF 3. DNA damage leading to an excess of glucocorticoids leading to activation of p53 genes |
|
|
What are p53 genes
|
cell death genes
|
|
|
What are 3 ways that GFs block apoptosis?
|
1. block p53
2. activate surivial genes BCL-2 3. IL-1 and 2 also inhibit |
|
|
What is the point of no retunr in apoptosis, what stops it?
|
Endonuclease release is the point of no return. THey are enzymes that cut up the nucleus. BCL-2 and ILs can rescue cell from apoptosis if present before endonucleases
|
|
|
What is BCL-2?
|
cell survival gene
|
|
|
Why are GFs needed in adults?
|
Leaning and wound healing/recovery
|
|
|
What are two possible caues of infertility?
|
Hormone difficiency or failure to ovulate
|
|
|
What are the four levels of HRT treatments for infertility?
|
1. PMSG- acts like an FSH surge,
2. HMG- acts like FSH surge Clomiphene- estrogen antagonist, blocks estrogen in brain and prevents negative feedback on GnRH thereby tismulating FSH. Enlarges ovaries 4. HCG- acts like LH, stimualtes ovulation |
|
|
What is PMSG?
|
pregnant mare's serum gonadotrophin. Acts like FSH surge in infertil women to elevate estrogen levels
|
|
|
What is human menopausal gonadotrophin?
|
Comes from urine of menopausal women, acts like an FSH surge to increase estrogen levels
|
|
|
What is clomiphene?
|
Estrogen antoginist used in infertile women by blocking estrogen receptors in the brain thereby preventing negative feedback on GnRH and increases FSH levels.
|
|
|
What is HCG? How is it used in infertile women?
|
human chorionic gonadotropin. Acts like LH to stimulate ovulation
|
|
|
What are 5 types of pregnancy tests?
|
1. Aschleim-Zondek mouse test
2. Friedman rabbit test 3. Galli-Manini frog test 4. Immunilogical test 5. Agglutination/inhibition test |
|
|
Explain the mouse test
|
urine from a woman is injected into a mouse, if HCG is present it will cause ovulation in the mouse in 96rs.
|
|
|
What is the rabbit test?
|
Rabbits are injected with pregnant woman's urine, HCG causes production of corpus luteum within 48hrs.
|
|
|
Explain the frog test.
|
Woman's urine is injected into a frog, if HCG is present it causes ejaculation in male frogs in 2-4 hours
|
|
|
How does an imunological pregnancy test work?
|
Test woman's urine with a serum that contains labelled HCG antibosie that compete with HCG in urine if pregnatn. Can measure amount of HCG present
|
|
|
How does the agglutination test work?
|
HCG antibosie are placed on latex, if HCG is in urine it will combine with the antibodies and cause agglutionation of the latex. 5min,-2hrs.
|
|
|
How can the agglutination test shw false postives?
|
LH can also bnd to the HCG antibodies
|
|
|
Which cells produce milk?
|
alveolar cells
|
|
|
which cells secrete milk?
|
myoepithelium
|
|
|
What hormones stimulate breast development at puberty?
|
GH, estrogen, progesterons, and corticosteroids
|
|
|
What hormones stimulate breast growth during pregnancy?
|
corticosteroids, estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, HPL
|
|
|
What hormones are responsible for lactation
|
corticosteroids, PRL, oxytocin
|
|
|
What stops the menstrual cycle in women when they become pregnant?
|
The embryo secretes HCG amintains the corpus luteum and progesterone levels stay high, maintianing the endometrium
|
|
|
Which cells in the breast secrete and eject milk?
|
Alveolar cells produce milk., myoepithelium cells eject milk
|
|
|
What hormone is released when the nipple is stimulated casuing milk ejection?
|
Oxytocin
|
|
|
Describe the activity of the following hormones during pregnancy:
1. PRL 2. HCG 3. HPL 4. Estrogen 5. FSH and LH 6. Cortisol 7. Insulin 8. Progesterone |
1. steady rise throughout pregnancy, drops at birth.
2. from blastocyst and placenta, maintains progesterone secretion 3. from the placenta, rises until birth. Breast growth, inhibits insulin. 4. steady rise till birth, first secreted by corpus luteum, then feto-placental unit 5.remain very low, progesterone inhibits GnRH 6. increases 7. decreases 8. increases until birth. Secreted by corpu luteum, then placenta |
|
|
How is parturition activated?
|
A drop in progesterone allows estrogen to become dominant. PRL, oxytocin, and relaxin increase.
|
|
|
What is the role of relaxin during parturition
|
secreted from ovaries, placenta, and uterus. Prepares uters, cervix, and vagina for parturition
|
|
|
What is the role of oxytocin in parturition?
|
caontracts uterine muscles. Rises in response to relaxin.
|
|
|
What hormones are involved in development of the breasts in these stages?
1. pre-pubertal 2. puberty 3. pregnancy 4. lactation |
1. GH, thyroxine
2. GHm estrogen, progesterone, corticosteroid 3. corticosteroid, estrogen, progesterone, PRL, HPL. 4. corticosteroid, PRL, oxytocin. |
|
|
What stimulates oxytocin for lactation? What inhibits it?
|
Stimulated by suckling, pups crying, and possibly ACh. Inhibitd by NA
|
|
|
What stimulates PRL duriing lactation?
|
Suckling and TRH.
|
|
|
What is lactational amenorrhea?
|
suppression of the menstrual cycle due to high levels of PRL during breastfeeding that inhibit GnRH adn FSH and LH, thereby preventing ovulation.
|
|
|
Define these types of parental care:
1. moonogamous 2. polygynous 3. polyandrous |
1. biparental care, common in fish aand birds, less common in mammals
2. male mates with multiple females, maternal care of offspring. Mammals, birds, fish 3. Female mates with multiple males, paternal care of offspring |
|
|
What are some maternal behaviour in rats?
|
nest building, licking, grooming, eating the placenta and umbelical cord, retrieving pups, keeping pups warm
|
|
|
What determines maternal behaviour, what initiates it, what maintians it?
|
Initiated by hormones during pregnancy, maintined by presence and development of pups
|
|
|
how do we know that hormones play a role in maternal behaviour?
|
It can be uinduced in nulliparous females with HRT
|
|
|
What hormones must be present to induce maternal behaviour?
|
Estrogen, progesterone and PRL
|
|
|
What brain areas have the highest concentration of estrogen receptors? In which of these areas can estrogen implants stimulate meternal behaviour?
|
MPOA, anterior hypothalamus, median eminence, and amygdala. Estrogen implants in the MPOA caan induce maternal behaviour
|
|
|
Wha thappens when opxytocin is infused into the olfactory bulbs of female rats?
|
Induces maternal behaviour
|
|
|
What effect do opioids have on maternal behaviour? how is this reversed?
|
They delay maternal behaviour, naloxone reverses the effect.
|
|
|
under what circumstances does biparental care increase pup survival?
|
Cold or harsh environments
|
|
|
True or false. Hormone levels change inmale rats when exposed to pups
|
False
|
|
|
What are some direct paternal behaviours in animals?
|
huddle and sleep with pups, groom and clean, retrieve, provide food, defense, care in absence of female, play and socialize
|
|
|
What are some indirect parternal behaviours?
|
secure resources, build nests, guard, care for the mother, territorial defense
|
|
|
What inhibits infanticide in males? In females?
|
copulation, cohabitation with female. Possibly inhibiton of androgens. In femalse pregnancy and hormonal changes inhibit.
|
|
|
What is a reactive stress response? What causes? Examples
|
An immediate involuntary reflex. Based on release of neuropeptides, causes CRH release. Pain, inflammatory, neuronal homeastatic signal
|
|
|
What is an anticipatory stress response? What are the two kinds?
|
1. innate- predators, unfamiliar envoranment, social challenges, species specific threats
2. Memory programs- classical conditioning, negative reinforcement/frustration |
|
|
What is general adaptation syndrome? Who coined it?
|
Selye coined the theory of three stages of stree.
1. Alarm- wuick stress, returns to baselin 2. Resistance- adapts to ongoing stress 3. Exhaustion- result of ongoing stress |
|
|
What is eustress?
|
Stress induced by pleasant situations
|
|
|
What is distress?
|
Stress induced by negativ situations.
|
|
|
Describe the HPA
|
the hypothalamus releases CRF acts on anterior pituitary to release ACTH acts on adrenal cortex and adnrenal medulla to relase corticosteroids and adrenaline respectively. ACTH, corticosteroids, and adrenaline all provide negative feedbakc to upper levels
|
|
|
What are the effects of activation of the sympathetic nervous systme?
1. behavioural 2. endocrine 3. neurochemical 4. metabolic |
1. Ingestion, exploration, sexual activity, social interaction all decrease
2. Increases in catabolic (E, GH, glucagon, cortsol, vasopressin, aldosterone) decrease in anabolic (insulin, estrogen, calcitonin, LH, FSH) 3. Increase in DA, NA, and serotonin in the brain 4. Faster HR, decreases digestion, sweat |
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Waht effect does activation of the SNS have on the adrenal medulla?
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Causes release of NA and A
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What neurotransmitter is used by the SNS?
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Preganglionic uses ACh, postganglionic uses NE and E
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What effects does activation of the parasympathetic nervous system have
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opposite of sympathetic:
decreases HR, blood pressure, digestion Decrease in catabolic hormones, increase in anabolic |
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What neurotransmitter does the PNS use?
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ACH
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What are some Physiological disorders caused by stress?
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Allergies, baldness, chest pains, hypertension, heart attack, backache, jawache, arthrits, asthma, colds, constipation or diarrhea, ulcers, diabetes, thyroid disorders, menstrual problems
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What effect does lack of parental touch have on pups later in life?
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Increasesd stress response, higher corticosteroid levels. Show lower learning levels, may be due to deterioration of hippocmpal cells due to high corticosteroid levels
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What are the long term effects of high corticosteroid levels?
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supression of anabolic processes, muscle atrophy, desensitivty to unsulin, hypertension,immunosuppression, damage to hippocampus
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What is the difference in the stress response in depressed people vs,. normal?
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higher stress response, could be due to imbalance of NE
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Which cognitive tasks are men better at? Women?
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Men: strength, visuospatial, mental rotation, quantiative
women: verbal, perceptual speed and accuracy, fine motor skills. |
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Why can't we determine whether sex differences are a reult of activational or organizational effects in humans? How are they studied?
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Because we can't manipulate the human fetus. Studied through natural abnormalities
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What are three natural abnormalities used to study sex differences in cognition? What information do they provide?
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1. CAH- increased spatial abilities, higher frequncy of learning disabilities
2. TSH (androgen insensitivity)- no significant bhevaioural findings 2. DES- morning sickness drug conatining synthetic estrogen that masculinizes a female fetus. Show masculine cognitive abilities. |
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What are the changes in cognitive abilities throughout the menstrual cycle? Due to?
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Olfactory and verbal recall are better when estrogen is high. Spatisl ability is better when all hormones are low during menses.
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What are the changes in cognitive ability during menopause with add-bakc estrogen?
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Add-back estrogens increase verbal memory
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Why might add-bakc estrogen studies be unreliable?
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1. women undergoing add-back are likely taking other drugs
2. based on self-report 3. mood changes are not taken into account 4. progesterone is often co-prescribed 5. dosage is not always taken into account |
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What effect does estrogen have on ALzheimer's patients?
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Improves cognitive function, causes reduced/later onset. May increases neuronal survival and repair, neuronal function, blood flow to brain
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What effect doe estrogen have on schizopjrenics?
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improves symptoms. Increase in verbal/visuospatial memory, perceptual speed
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Who has a higher incidence of depression, women or men? Why?
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Women. Earlier onset in males.
1. more women go to the doctor than men 2. biological reasons- nts, hormones, brain structures 3. psychological factors such as high stress, or lower social standing |
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What effect does estrogen have on depression? Why?
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Increases.estrogen may:
1. regulate serotonin receptors 2. alter response to serotonin sltering drugs 3. may prevent antidepressants from functioning |
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Who has higher prevalence of schizophrenia, women or men? When?
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Same prevalence, earlier onset in men. Men have more positive symptoms, women have more affective symptoms
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When is schizophrenia relapse likely for women?
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During times of low estrogen: post-partum, menopause.
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Why might estrogen decrease schisophrenic symptoms?
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1. block dopamine
2. regulate serotonin density 3. enhance absorption of antipsychotic drugs |
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What is the dewxamethasone suppression test?
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***** an individual's ability to suppress the HPA axis. Dexamethasone is administered, then blood samples are taken periodically to measure levels of cortisol. In normal patients ACTH should inhibit cortisol.
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What does the dexamethasone test show in MDD patients?
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50% of MDD patients can't supress cortisol
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