Midterm 2

Front 1

Theories on Attachment (why do infants become attached?)

Back 1

1.psychoanalytic theory; mom satisfies baby's 'oral' needs and also provides a model for all later relationships in life.

2. behaviorist theory; mom provides relief from hunger, so positive associations are created that lead to attachment.

3. ethological theory; we are preprogrammed to form attachments with others, because this helps us survive, but also our early relationships create a 'working model' of what it means to have a relationship with someone.

Front 2

What needs are being balanced in a given attachment type?

Back 2

the need to explore and the need of safety.

Front 3

Secure Base

Back 3

an attachment figure; a person who's presence provides a sense of safety

Front 4

Internal Working Model

Back 4

a mental model that children construct based on their experiences with their care providers; guides their expectations

Front 5

Bowlby's Development of Attachment

Back 5

birth -> 6 weeks; preattachment phase (they are happy to anyone that responds).

6 weeks -> 6-8 months; attachment-in-the-making phase (they start to create a working model, based on the INGREDIENTS OF ATTACHMENT).

6-8 months -> 18-24 months; clear-cut attachment phase (attachment type is clearly seen).

18-24 months -> beyond; reciprocal phase (give BACK to their caregivers a strong experience of attachment, usually with hugs and kisses, etc)

Front 6

Ingredients for Attachment

Back 6

1. reciprocity (take turns and react to social partner);

2. effectance (baby's actions affects others in a consistent way)

3. trust (can count on caregiver for protection/food/etc)

Front 7

Indicators/Signs of Attachment

Back 7

separation anxiety (doesn't indicate the TYPE of attachment), stranger anxiety, greetings when caregiver returns, secure base behavior (caregiver is a 'base of operations' for their play/activities; they stay near them), social referencing (looking at caregiver when unsure). all amplified when child is distressed.

Front 8

Stranger Situation

Back 8

series of separations and reunions. stranger introduced w/ mom and child in room -> parent leaves room -> parent comes back, stranger quietly leaves -> parent leaves child alone -> stranger reintroduced FOLLOWED BY parent (who is the source of comfort?)

Front 9

Adult Attachment Interview

Back 9

retrospective accounts of own experiences with their parents. measures an adult's internal working model for their parents. focuses on how their experience is integrated/understood, not exactly what happened. questions ask to describe: early relationship with parents, salient separation episodes, instances of rejection, encounters with loss, and future expectations for childbearing.

Front 10

Attachment Classifications in Children (behavior)

Back 10

1. secure (65%); explore freely, upset when caregiver leaves, greet caregiver warmly.

2. insecure-avoidant (20-25%); little/no distress upon separation, no contact when caregiver returns, more contact with stranger.

3. insecure-resistant (10-15%); distressed by separation, don't settle easily upon return, mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors.

4. disorganized/disoriented (<5%); confusing/contradictory behaviors, dazed/fearful facial expressions, frozen postures

Front 11

Attachment Classifications in Adults (how do they talk about their parents?)

Back 11

1. autonomous (secure); show objectivity/balance, coherent/stable attitude, realistic view. dismissing (avoidant)

2. devalue relationships ('it doesnt matter'), idealize parents but can't recall specific examples, discuss past w/ little emotion.

3. pre-occupied (resistant); talk w/ highly charged emotions, not coherent/stable, overwhelmed.

4. unresolved (disorganized); disorganized thinking/speech when discussing traumatic experiences.

Front 12

Changes in Attachment

Back 12

about 70% of people remain in the same attachment group throughout their lifetime. possible causes for change are major life events (death/divorce/etc) and the quality of later relationships (Roisman longitudinal study).

Front 13

Earned Security

Back 13

when individuals with early insecure attachments change their internal working model of relationships to form a secure attachment working model, often through high-quality relationships. the inverse is true for low-quality relationships later in life.

Front 14

Theories of Language Acquisition

Back 14

behaviorist perspective; learned through reinforcement and imitation. nativist (Chomsky);

langauge is innate and hardwired; surface structure (what you hear) and deep structure/universal grammar (things we all recognize); language acquisition device (requires exposure to language to be activated, but once activated can learn any language easily until the end of the senstitive period). interactionist; in between nativism and behaviorism; we have an innate interest in speech sounds, but we must learn what they mean/how to use them through our interactions with culture and context (Language Acquisition Support System)

Front 15

Categorical Speech Perception (how does it change with age?)

Back 15

when we are 6-8 months old, we can easily distinguish between similar sounds and non-native/native language. after that, it becomes more difficult (Werker toy/sound-change study). as we grow older, we categorize sounds based on the voice onset time (the delay between when you open your mouth and vibrate your vocal chords)

Front 16

Child-directed Speech (characteristics)

Back 16

higher pitch, larger pitch range, smoother pitch, shorter sentences, clearer pronounciation, longer pause, exaggerated intonation

Front 17

Child-directed Speech (function)

Back 17

helps make adult-infant communication easier by exaggerating the tone of voice and letting the baby know what is good/bad allowed/not allowed (based on the tone of voice; Fernald tone study)

Front 18

Tone of Voice Study

Back 18

Fernald study; parents gave baby an affirmative/rejective command in either a positive/negative tone of voice after presenting a toy to see how the baby reacted (looking time in infants and facial expressions in toddlers)

Front 19

Stages of Speech Production

Back 19

reflex sound (birth); crying/gurgling, no meaning/content. cooing (1-3 months); real vowels ('oo'), but still no content. early babbling (4-6 months); no real words, but a reduced set of possible syllables, turn-taking seen. canonical babbling (7-9 months); repeated syllables. jargon babbling (10-12 months); includes intonation of real/semi real phrases (as if they are talking). first word (~12 months); usually 'mama' or 'papa', or other words with repeated syllables. one word stage part 1 (12-14 months); learn words slowly, typically content words; overextension seen (one word to refer to several things). one word stage part 2 (14-18 months); vocabulary spurt, fast mapping seen here. two word stage (1.5 - 2.5 years); telegraphic speech, understand word order.

Front 20

Stages of Babbling

Back 20

early babbling (4-6 months); no real words, but a reduced set of possible syllables, turn-taking seen. canonical babbling (7-9 months); repeated syllables ('mamama')

Front 21

Function Words vs Content Words

Back 21

function words; hard to learn, serve grammatical functions. content words; easier to learn, words that mean something or label some object.

Front 22

Fast Mapping Study

Back 22

Woodward Study; infants saw a novel object among familiar objects, then either given the name ('toma') of the object or not. a day later, 67% of kids remembered what a 'toma' was. they can quickly map the sound to the object.

Front 23

Overextension Study

Back 23

Thompson and Chapman study; used babies that were overextending (ex. 'doggie'). showed child two pictures (a dog and a cat) and asked 'where is the doggie?'. most children looked/pointed at the dog. conclusion = they DO understand what they are saying, they just have a lack of vocabulary and its convenient to use words they know.

Front 24

Three Mechanisms for Word Learning

Back 24

mutual exclusivity (given two objects,one they know and one they dont, they know one object is 'x' and the other is 'anything but X'), grammatical information (syntactic bootstrapping), and social information

Front 25

Study demonstrating Mutual Exclusivity (what they did and results)

Back 25

Markman and Wachtel study; on 3 year olds. kids shown a known and unknown object, then asked 'show me the blicket!' (the name of the unknown object) or 'show me it!'. most children in the condition where they named the unknown object would raise the unknown object. conclusion = children apply new words to novel objects

Front 26

Study demonstrating Syntactic Bootstrapping (what they did and results)

Back 26

Katz et al study. they were presented with many similar dolls in different colors then either told 'this is Dax' (then pointed to a specific doll) or 'this is a Dax' (no pointing). then, asked either 'show Dax to Mom!' or 'show a Dax to Mom!'. child would often pick up the specific one when asked to pick up Dax vs A Dax. conclusion = children obtain meaning from grammatical information.

Front 27

Study demonstrating use of Social Information (what they did and results)

Back 27

Baldwin study; on 19 month olds. two boxes with different objects in them. experimenter would say "there's a MODI in here!' while looking at one box but picking up the other. then, child asked to 'find the MODI!'. majority of children went to the box that was looked at. conclusion = children use social information in learning new words.

Front 28

Morphemes

Back 28

words or word parts that carry meanings. example 'dogs' has two morphemes 'dog' (the animal) and 's' (plural, so many)

Front 29

MLU (mean length of utterace)

Back 29

the number of morphemes in a given sentence/phrase/word

Front 30

Sensitive Period for Language Acquisition

Back 30

study by Johnson and Newport; korean and chinese speakers learn English (varying ages 3-39 years). when a participant was an adult, they were tested with complex sentences. results = the younger you begin to learn a language, the better you perform/retain it.

ages 3-7 seems to be the critical period.

Front 31

Benefits of Bi-lingual/Multi-lingual Education

Back 31

improved analytical reasoning, faster concept formation, cognitive flexibility, metalinguistic knowledge ('I speak English and Spanish' vs "what do you mean 'what language'?"

Front 32

Emergence of Self Recognition

Back 32

Lewis and Brooks study; baby mirror study. put red dye on baby's nose and then held up in front of a mirror. <15 month olds did not react, but 18-24 month olds tried to touch the red mark. conclusion = children at around 2 years of age can recognize themselves. this is also the age of self labeling (I/me), of the concept of possessiveness, and the concept of the categorical self (age/gender/etc)

Front 33

Theories of Gender Development

Back 33

1. social-learning theory: we learn through modeling/imitating society.

2. cognitive-development theory: concept of gender comes from a child's construction of their experiences and develops over time (gender labeling -> stability -> consistency).

3. gender-schema theory; gender concept is a cognitive model that is shaped by 'relevant information' that controls our interpretations (information that is strange to the current gender schema, therefore relevant, gets processed at a deep level and remembered more easily, so the child is more likely to think about/approach it.

4. cultural theory: gender identity is created through the activities each child does in their culture; source of experience is important.

Front 34

Sources of Influences on Gender Developments

Back 34

parents, teachers, peers, and the media

Front 35

Gender Schema Theory

Back 35

gender concept is a cognitive model that is shaped by 'relevant information' that controls our interpretations (information that is strange to the current gender schema, therefore relevant, gets processed at a deep level and remembered more easily, so the child is more likely to think about/approach it

Front 36

Narrated Self

Back 36

emerges at 2-2.5 years of age. characterized by autobiographical memory (past event, child is protagonist, often in 1st person, conversational in nature)

Front 37

Cross-cultural Research on Storytelling

Back 37

Taipei vs Chicago study on 2.5 year olds. examined chinese families, euro-american families and african-american families. similarities = occurred routinely, content usually about family events/fear/physical harm.

differences:

1. Chinese; parents were critical but guided the story.

2. euro-american; child has freedom to tell whole story, and even if the story was about something negative the parents gave it a positive twist.

3. african-american; children has right to tell story however they like, but the right to be heard is earned.

Front 38

Types of Aggression

Back 38

1. instrumental aggression; to get something.

2. hostile aggression; to establish dominance.

Front 39

Development of Aggression in Children

Back 39

1-2 years of age; rapid increase in instrumental aggression (due to physical changes and possessiveness).

16-18 months; children know how to upset siblings/peers, so they start to tease and also do physical harm.

after 18 months; focus on teasing and hostile aggression.

Front 40

Precursors for Instrumental Aggression

Back 40

understanding of others' perspectives and theory of mind. means-end planning (series of actions to achieve a goal)

Front 41

Differences in Aggression

Back 41

boys are more physically aggressive but girls are more aggressive when it comes to relationships. testosterone positively correlated to aggressopm when the activity is one with high-energy/adrenaline. stress positively correlated with aggression when the sense of control over the stress is low.

Front 42

Explanations for Aggression

Back 42

1. biological (testosterone, cross-species similarity)

2. socio-cultural ( dependant on cultural norms/practices),

3. emotion (knowledge about emotions, stress),

4. cognition (how are actions interpreted and how is aggression viewed as consistent vs situational)

Front 43

Ways to Control Aggression

Back 43

1. cognitive perspective: teach children to interpret others' actions in less aggressive ways and take the dynamic view on aggression (it is situational); reason with children.

2. evolutionary perspective; aggression occurs through a dominance hierarchy, so have the members in a higher status control it.

3. social-learning perspective; reward children when they choose alternate behaviors through treats or selective attention, don't use physical punishment as that increases aggression (they learn that that is how you solve problems).

Front 44

Development of Empathy

Back 44

global empathy (no action) -> helping behavior, but it is egocentric (limited to how the child would feel better) ->helping behavior that takes the perspective of the other person -> helping behavior that takes the perspective of the other person and also considers their past experiences

Front 45

Sympathy vs Personal Distress

Back 45

sympathy: feeling sorrow for others.

personal distress: when sympathy makes you start to feel distressed. empathy can turn into sympathy or personal distress depending on the intensity of the other person's emotions and how well you can regulate your own emotions.