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67 Cards in this Set
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Muhammad
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The founder of Islam; regarded by believers as the last prophet of God, following in the line of prophets like Abraham and Jesus. Was born in Mecca in 570, and by the time of his death in 632 in Medina, most of Arabia had converted to Islam. His revelations form the Quran, which is regarded as the direct word of God. His hijra to Medina allowed the establishment of Islam as the basis of a state
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Safavids
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Ruled Iran from 1500-1700, and established Shi’a Islam as the official religion of the empire. Their empire was the first instance of a Shi’a state in the absence of an imam. Were rivals with the Ottoman Empire. Enhanced a sense of “nationalism” among Iranians through preserving and celebrating classical Persian heritage.
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Selim III
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Sultan of Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Pushed reform in response to defeat at the hands of the Russians. Claimed to be restoring Ottoman Islamic glory to justify his changes. Began the practice of using European military advisers, and in other ways reach out to the west, such as sending ambassadors abroad. Was a patron of the arts.
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Tanzimat
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In response to the decline and shrinking of the empire, Tanzimat was a period of reformation in the Ottoman Empire lasting from 1839 until 1876, with beginning of the Constitutional Reforms. The reforms aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire, and promote “Ottomanism” to counter the various nationalist movements gaining power. The reforms were state sponsored and used the new bureaucratic system. Reforms included: abolishing tax farming, standardizing military conscription, basic rule of law; equality for subjects.
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Khedive Ismail (Ismail Pasha)
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Khedive of Egypt in mid to late 1800s who attempted to modernize the country and make it part of the European community (saying Egypt is no longer part of Africa, but part of Egypt), but ultimately caused massive debt, especially through his war with Ethiopia and construction of the Suez Canal. Was granted increased autonomy from OE in exchange for much needed tax revenue. Established a rudimentary representative advisory body. Overthrown by Urabi Revolt in 1879.
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Constitutional Revolution
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The first Constitutional Revolution in the Middle East took place in Iran between 1905 and 1911, leading to the creation of a parliament. As concessions to Europe were increasing, the people demanded curbs to monarchical power. The ascension of Reza Shah in 1925 effectively ended parliamentary power.
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Ataturk
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Founded the Republic of Turkey and was its first president in 1923. Embarked on a series of reforms following the philosophy that came to be known as Kemalism. His principles through the Republican People’s Party include: republicanism, populism (including women’s rights), national unity, secularism, progress, education as a method of achieving unity, and statism. “Purifies” Turkish language, and requires its use instead of Arabic. No interest in pan-Islam- abolished caliphate.
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Muslim Brotherhood
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A Sunni Islamist movement, powerful and influential in many countries, especially Egypt. Established in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna, the group seeks to establish the Quran as a basis of law and society, and to establish of a unified Muslim state, ostensibly through non-violent jihad, although the group has been involved in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Brotherhood helped overthrow pro-Western monarchies in the Middle East (such as Egypt), runs charitable organizations in several countries, and even has branches that are political parties, such as Hamas in Palestine. One member, Sayyid Qutb, developed a radical ideology in opposition to Nasser, saying violence can be used to overthrow a “non-Muslim” state—an idea that has persisted.
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Maronites
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Christians of the Eastern Rite who are a prominent sect in Lebanon. Lebanon, under French influence, was founded as a “Christian state” for the Maronites, though it is unlikely that they ever formed a majority population, much less maintain one today.
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Ibn Saud
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First monarch of Saudi Arabia and member of the House of Saud; established the kingdom as a Wahhabi state in 1926. With control of Mecca, Medina (1924), and large oil reserves (discovered in 1938), Ibn Saud laid the framework for a totalitarian welfare state. FDR met with Ibn Saud after the Yalta Conference in 1945 to agree to an alliance, which has existed more or less to this day.
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Muhammad Reza
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Monarch of Iran until the Revolution in 1979. His White Revolution, a series of economic and social reforms intended to transform Iran into a global power, succeeded in modernizing the nation, nationalizing many natural resources and extending suffrage to women, among other things. However, a partial failure of the land reform, the lack of democratization as criticized by some of his opponents, as well as the restriction of the traditional power of the Shi'a clergy due to parts of the reforms, increased opposition to his authority. Was known for extravagant expenses, such as the celebration of 2500 years of Persian monarchy.
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Ali Shariati
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Influential philosophical leader in pre-revolutionary Iran. Advocated a blend of Marxism and (“red”) Shiism for oppressed people. Centered on ideas of martyrdom based on Husayn; lectures to students inspired the People’s Mujaheddin (violent opposition group).
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Menachem Begin
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The first Likud Prime Minister in Israel, in 1977. Although he ceded the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in the Camp David Accords, he promoted nationalist policies like settlements and oversaw a highly inflationary economy. Despite controversial policies, is a much beloved figure by Israelis.
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Hamas
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An acronym for “Islamic Resistance Movement,” Hamas is a Palestinian political party established at the beginning of the First Intifada in 1987 as an application of the Muslim Brotherhood ideology. Hamas’ charter calls for the destruction of Israel, and believes all of Palestine is a sacred trust, where nothing can be ceded (in contrast to Arafat’s concessions). It is labeled a terrorist organization by the EU and United States. It refused to participate in Palestinian Authority politics initially, and engaged in violent attacks to halt peace process. The Baruch Goldstein mosque massacre in 1994 gave credence to their claims. Hamas advocates armed resistance against Israel, and has established hospitals, education systems, and social services, leading to its surprise parliamentary gains in 2006.
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Saddam Hussein
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A leading Ba’athist, Saddam gained power in the 1968 coup in Iraq. During his time as vice president, Saddam maintained power through a repressive police force and nationalizing the country’s oil reserves. He maintained power during the Iran-Iraq War in 1980-1988 and the First Gulf War in 1991. He brutally repressed potential dissidents, like the Kurds and Shi’a. Was beloved by Arabs for standing up to West and supporting Palestinians. Deposed in 2003, executed in 2006.
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Yitzak Shamir
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PM of Israel in the 1980s who normalized relations with Egypt, participated in the Madrid Conference, and did not retaliate against Saddam’s SCUD missiles in the Gulf War. He was ousted when his participation in the Madrid Conference seemed too moderate.
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Gamal Abd al-Nasser
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Second President of Egypt in 1956-1970 and important figure in Arab history. Took power as opposition to Muslim Brotherhood’s corruption. Espoused a theory of pan-Arabism known as Nasserism (socialist, secular though celebrates Islamic culture, anti-Imperialism, and Non-Alignment). Inspired Nasserist revolutions in several states and was key in forming the PLO. Was seen as a leader among the Arab states, especially after the Suez Crisis in 1956, though this was hurt by the defeat in the 1967 War. Joined with Syria to form the short-lived United Arab Republic in 1958. His economic programs, though popular, were not viable in the long run, especially discouraging foreign investment. Near the end of his reign, moderated—inviting foreign investment and warming to the West and Israel. Governed with strict authoritarianism but had great appeal to the general public, who mourned his death en masse.
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Hijra
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Meaning withdrawal, it is the emigration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina in 622. The Islamic calendar counts this year as the first year.
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Millets
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A system of granting non-Muslim communities under the Ottoman Empire a great deal of autonomy, specifically within the legal system. Rather than suppressing the empire's many religious communities, the Turks allowed them a degree of autonomy as long as they complied with the demands of the sultan. The millets set their own laws and collected their own taxes until the 19th century.
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Mehmed Ali
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First pasha of Egypt and Sudan in early 1800s and father of modern Egypt. Took power when Europeans agreed to relinquish control of Egypt to the Ottomans. Established cotton as a staple crop (turning it into a personal monopoly), and military-centered reforms of education, medicine, and infrastructure. Frequent conscription led to peasants fleeing or mutilating themselves to avoid military service. After sacrificing his navy to help the Ottoman sultan with the Greek Revolt in 1820 for no reward, he rebelled against the Ottomans in the 1830s, leading them to seek European protection.
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Young Ottomans
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Group of nationalist intellectuals formed in 1865. Advocated constitutional parliamentary government and equality of the millets. All reforms until them increased the unchecked power of the state.
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Urabi Revolt
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An uprising in Egypt in 1879-82 against the Khedive and European influence in the country. First sign of Egyptian nationalism. It was led by and named after Colonel Ahmed Urabi. With Egypt in debt, the finances of the country were controlled by Europeans, who were disproportionately powerful even within Egypt. Fiscal crises caused military cuts, creating a large class of unemployed military men. Urabi’s uprising spurred British intervention (to protect the Suez Canal), with occupation lasting for decades.
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Reza Shah
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Shah of Iran from 1925 until the Soviet invasion in 1941. His emergence was designed by the British as a halt on Bolshevik invasion in the area. Oversaw major developments like the trans-Iranian railway and opening of Tehran University. Outraged religious scholars through his westernizing reforms. Abolished capitulations. Grew increasingly autocratic and repressive as his regime went on.
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King Faysal
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A member of the Hashemite dynasty, was briefly king of Syria and then king of Iraq from 1921 to 1933. Had sided with the Allies in WWI and revolted against the Ottomans in the name of Arab nationalism.
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Sunnis
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Majority sect of Islam, accepting the caliphate of Abu Bakr and its continuation until 1924. Since then, they have struggled to provide a viable alternative. Sunnies believe every word of the Quran is God’s word, which is eternal and unchanging.
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Wahhabis
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Members of a sect of Sunni Islam born of an 18th century conservative reform movement led by Abd-al-Wahhab. The Saud clan embraced this interpretation of Islam, and it spread through Ibn al-Saud’s rise to power. Saudi Arabia’s control of Mecca, Medina, and oil wealth have led to the empowerment of this system of belief (sometimes called “petro-Islam”). Wahhabism advocates strict adherence to their interpretation of Islam, even advocating jihad against other Muslims (increasing divisions among Islam).
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Mosaddiq
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Mohammed Reza’s PM in Iran from 1951 to 1953. He was a nationalist who nationalized Iran’s oil reserves. He was deposed in a military coup led by the US and UK, with fears of communism. American intervention in this incident is still an anti-American rallying point for Iranians.
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Ayatollah Khomeini
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Shi’a cleric and philosopher who helped inspire the 1979 Revolution deposing Reza Shah. He vehemently opposed the Shah’s White Revolution, and what he saw as moral corruption. He believed that the country should be governed under shariah by the most learned Islamic jurist. After the revolt, he led the Islamic Republic until his death. Fears of Islamic Revolution spreading were formative in international relations at the time, such as support for Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War.
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Yasir Arafat
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Nobel-winning Palestinian militant and politician; Chairman of the PLO. Although he advocated armed resistance to Israel, toward the end of his career he entered in several negotiations with Israelis. He was often criticized for the corruption under his leadership, and his terrorist background.
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King Faysal
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King of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975. As king he is credited with rescuing the country's finances and implementing a policy of modernization and reform, while his main foreign policy themes were pan-Islamism, anti-Communism, and anti-Zionism. Laid the foundations for the modern welfare system through oil wealth. Cemented a close relationship with the US. In the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Faysal withdrew Saudi oil from the world market, leading to the energy crisis.
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UNSCOM
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UN organization charged with inspecting Iraq to ensure that it complied with policies regarding WMDs from 1991 to 1999.
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Yitzhak Rabin
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The first native-born Prime Minister of Israel in the 1970s, who won a Nobel Prize for his progress toward peace with Palestine in the 1993 Oslo Accords. He was fairly moderate and willing to compromise for peace. He was assassinated in 1995 for his involvement in this peace process.
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Suez Canal
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Manmade canal west of the Sinai Peninsula, opened in 1869 to facilitate global trade and travel. Its geostrategic importance has caused Egypt to be frequently dominated by foreign powers in its history. Nasser’s nationalization of the Canal in 1956 led the British to collude with Israel to invade, sparking the Suez Crisis.
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Caliph
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Title of a leader ruling a state under sharia. The title has been claimed by Umayyads, Abbasids, and the Ottomans, until Ataturk abolished it in 1924.
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Devshirme
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A human tax, taking Christian boys who would become Muslim soldiers (even Janissaries) or administrators, forming a loyal slave army for the Ottoman sultan. Could rise to great prominence in empire, including a number of Grand Viziers. Abolished in 1648, mostly because Janissaries wanted the positions for their own families.
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Greek Revolt
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Successful war by the Greeks to gain independence from the Ottoman empire from 1821 to 1829. The first Ottoman subjects to gain sovereignty. Mehmed Ali of Egypt sacrificed his navy to help the Ottomans unsuccessfully put down the rebellion. Helped by philhellenist sympathies in Europe. Signalled the beginning of the Ottoman Empire’s downfall, and the rise of the Eastern Question.
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Abdelhamid II
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The last Ottoman emperor who ruled with absolutist powers, from 1876 to 1909. Granted first Constitution, though largely ignored it. Delayed the break-up of the empire through dealing with secessionist revolts and playing Europeans off each other. Gave over control of debt and finances to European powers. Allowed the British to gain power in Egypt, lost Bulgaria, and lost control of the Greek frontier. Tried to promote pan-Islamism, and style self as caliph. Was deposed by Young Turks.
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Young Turks
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Coalition of groups in 1889 favoring reform of the Ottoman Empire. Rebelling against Abdelhamid II, the Young Turks brought about the second constitutional era. Forming the Committee of Union and Progress, the Young Turks built a tradition of dissent lasting until the end of the Ottoman Empire. Young Turks were both centralizers and decentralizers, but sought progressivism. Helped establish a new sense of secular identification in Turkey. Their revolutionary ideas inspired a religious counter-revolution in 1909; both were squashed by gov.
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Sharif Husayn
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Hashemite King of Hejaz from 1916 to 1924. Was a leader in the Arab revolt against Ottoman rule during World War I. Deposed by Ibn Saud. His sons, Abdullah and Faysal, became kings of Jordan and Iraq, respectively.
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Sa’d Zaghlul
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Led Wafdists to Egyptian independence in 1924 and was briefly PM. Attempted to include both Muslims and non-Muslims, speaking for the whole country. He attempted to avoid violence, petitioning the British for self-government. English suppression of his speech drove the Wafdists underground (like Jacobins) and spurred the first revolution.
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King Abdullah
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Hashemite founder of Jordan, ruler from 1921-1951. For helping the British by not provoking the French, was awarded rule of the protectorate of Transjordan. Eventually negotiated Jordan’s independence. Dreamed of uniting Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and the British Mandate for Palestine under a Hashemite dynasty with a throne in Damascus. Was assassinated for suspected loyalty to the west (using British military advisors) and dealings with Israel.
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Shi’is
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Rejected Abu Bakr as the first caliph, and believe that Ali was the first rightful ruler and the first imam. The largest sect, twelvers, believe that the twelfth imam will reappear in the endtimes. Emphasize the martyrdom of Husayn (at Karbala in 680) and celebrate Ashura. Accept a different hadith from Sunnis.
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Pan-Arabism
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Goal of uniting all the Arabs. First pushed by Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, who sought Arab independence and unity from Ottomans. More formalized theory developed in the 1930s, and was a key element of Ba’athism. The high point of pan-Arabism was in the 1960s under Nasser (including the union with Syria forming the United Arab Republic) but was hurt in the 1967 War. Is today eclipsed by Islamism.
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SAVAK
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National security and intelligence organization in Iran from 1957 to 1979. Under Mohammad Reza Shah, SAVAK gained a reputation for being a brutally repressive organization. It enjoyed virtually limitless power to arrest, detain, and torture. Was dismantled as part of the Iranian Revolution.
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David Ben-Gurion
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First PM of Israel in 1948. A lifelong Zionist, he helped facilitate Jewish immigration to Palestine, even when it was illegal under British Mandate. He oversaw Israeli victory in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and built the institutions of the Israeli state.
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PLO
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The Palestinian Liberation Organization, founded by the Arab League in 1964, has been regarded as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people across the globe. After the 1967 War, Yasser Arafat increased the PLO’s authority, advocating guerilla warfare, and leading to the PLO’s expulsion from Jordan. PLO’s authority was greatly undermined by Yasser Arafat’s support for Saddam Hussein in invading Kuwait.
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OPEC
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Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, a cartel formed in 1960 to coordinate members’ petroleum policies. The Yom Kippur War spurred Arab members to enforce an oil embargo in 1973, and the energy crisis. OPEC’s political power is limited, however, by other oil resources, although oil price increases since the 2003 invasion of Iraq may be increasing political relevance.
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Madrid Conference
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1991 Conference sponsored by the USA and USSR as an early attempt to reach peace between Israel and Palestine. The Conference attempted to take advantage of the coalition formed in the First Gulf War to involve neighboring Arab states in resolving the conflict. The PLO did not participate, since it was weakened from supporting Saddam. More symbolically important, as it did not produce substantial progress.
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Ehud Barak
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Labor Israeli PM from 1999-2001. Oversaw the withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000. Participated in the Camp David talks in 2000. Believes in disengagement from Palestinians, even unilaterally, and building secure borders, including fences if necessary. Is the current Minister of Defense.
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1967 War
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The Six Days’ War was fought in June 1967 between Israel and Egypt, Jordan and Syria. Following Egypt’s expulsion of UN forces from Sinai and amassing troops and tanks on the border, Israel, fearing invasion, bombed Egypt’s air force, virtually destroying it. Jordan, through a mutual defense treaty, also attacked. In less than a week, Israel, under Ariel Sharon’s leadership, acquired territory in Sinai, the West Bank, Gaza, and the Golan Heights. The incident continues to shape the situation in the region: it proved Israel’s military strength, contributed to the Palestinian refugee problem, forced Jews in other Arab countries to leave, and Arab states believe the conquered territory was illegally occupied, while Israel argues that its former borders were indefensible.
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Ottomans
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Dynasty established around 1300, lasting until 1924. Longest ruling and largest empire in Muslim history. Known for relative tolerance of subjects. Eventually torn apart by the empire’s size and diversity, and manipulation at the hands of European powers.
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Janissaries
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Soldiers who served as the Ottoman Emperor’s bodyguards. Were established in the 14th century, originally formed of mostly young Christian boys taken in the devshirme. Were an advanced and feared fighting group, the first with uniforms and bands. Replaced tribal militia groups, whose loyalty could not always be trusted. The group as a whole amassed great wealth and political power, resisting political reform. Disbanded by Mahmud II in 1826.
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Mahmud I
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Sultan of Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. Was put on the throne by a Janissary revolt.
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Eastern Question
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Diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire beginning in the 18th century. Russia was concerned with access to the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule. Austria feared Russia gaining strength, and wanted to stem the tide of nationalism among its own diverse peoples. The UK was concerned with maintaining the balance of power, as well as sea routes to India.
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Pan-Turkism
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Goal of uniting Turkish people into a single state. Emerged in 1908 with the Committee for Unity and Progress under the Ottomans. The Young Turks also embraced Turkish nationalism. The idea was stifled, however, by Ataturk.
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Sykes-Picot
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an understanding between the governments of Britain and France, with the assent of Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in west Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Lenin released a copy to embarrass the Allies.
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Wafd
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The nationalist Wafd Party, with Sa’d Zaghlul as its democratically elected leader in 1919. The party rapidly became the dominant political organization in the country, and was the governing party (albeit in a subordinate role to the executive power of the king) through most of the liberal period which came to an end with the rise of Gamal Abd al Nasser. Was undermined by British support in 1942 coup. The party was dissolved in 1952, after the military coup of that year.
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Druze
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Religious community that began as an offshoot of Islam, but incorporates other philosophies.
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National Bloc
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Party in Syria that dominated politics from 1927-1939. Formed of leading land-owning families, the group was torn between the desires of the people (after the first major revolt in 1925) and the imperial power. France rejected the National Bloc’s proposed constitution in 1929 and imposed its own. The group had no distinct ideology or goals beyond independence for Syria through non-violent means.
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Pan-Islam
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Political movement to unite all Muslims under one state or caliphate, regardless of the race of Muslims. Advocated resistance to imperialism under Jamar al-Din al-Afghani. Rulers like Abdelhamid II may use claims of pan-Islam to try to reinforce power.
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White Revolution
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Series of reforms by Muhammad Reza Shah in Iran in 1963. With the goal of transforming Iran into an international power, Muhammad Reza pursued policies such as: land reform (to increase diverse ownership), privatization of industries, education reform, increasing women’s rights, and introduction of welfare programs. However, the failure of land reforms, insufficient democratizing, and resistance by the clergy led to violent resistance from students and the ultimate failure of the reforms. Ayatollah Khomeini was an outspoken opponent of the White Revolution, gaining national notoriety.
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Law of Return
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Israeli legislation allowing Jews to settle in Israel and gain citizenship, passed in 1950, to facilitate Jews return to their ancestral homeland. Helps keep Israel predominantly Jewish; is seen by some as discriminatory. Part of an attempt to create a “Jewish nationality.”
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Fatah
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Major Palestinian political party and the largest faction in the PLO, founded in the 1950s. Arafat was a member. Is not recognized as a terrorist organization, unlike rival Hamas. Lost its majority in 2006 elections. Gained power after 6 Day War. Is widely seen as corrupt.
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Intifada
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Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule, first in 1987-1993 and then again beginning in 2000. Encouraged by successful armed resistance to Israel in Lebanon. Palestinian actions took a number of forms, including civil disobedience, general strikes, boycotts on Israeli products, graffiti, and barricades, but it was the stone-throwing demonstrations by youth against the heavily-armed Israeli Defense Forces that brought the first intifada international renown, ending with the Oslo Accords. The second intifada is much more deadly, with escalating use of arms, especially suicide bombings and Qassam rockets.
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Oslo I and II
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Finalized in 1993, the Oslo Accords formalized in Oslo I and II produced several milestones. It was the first face-to-face meeting between Israelis and Palestinians, Palestine first publicly recognized Israel’s right to exist, and framed future relations for the two entities, including the creation of the Palestinian Authority. Left issues such as Jerusalem, refugees, and settlements to be negotiated at a later date. Progress toward peace, however, was waylaid by the Second Intifada in 2000.
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Yigal Amir
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Assassinated Yitzhak Rabin in 1995 in Tel Aviv. Against the concessions Rabin agreed to in the Oslo Accords.
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Anwar al-Sadat
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President of Egypt from 1970 to his assassination in 1981. He had been a senior member of the Free Officers who overthrew the Mehmed Ali Dynasty in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, and was a close confidante of Gamal Abdel Nasser, whom he succeeded as President in 1970. Launched the Intifah, encouraging foreign investment in Egypt. Privatized industries and recognized Israel. Led during the Yom Kippur War and regained Sinai. Allowed Muslim Brotherhood to organize if activities non-violent, leading to religious revival. His concessions in the 1979 Camp David Accords, regaining territory and establishing relations with Israel, led to his assassination.
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