Middle East Exam - Important People

Front 1

capitulations

Back 1

1569-18th century
isma'il

Front 2

suez canal

Back 2

1869, isma'il, public debt commission

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public debt commission

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1876, british/french, egyptian bankruptcy

Front 4

anglo-egyptian treaty of alliance

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4 points: suez canal zone british territory, egypt independence, signed by wafd

Front 5

urabi revolt

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18881 ahmed urabi, "egypt for the egyptians", ownership of egyptian infrastructure like suez canal, military revolt, anglo-egyptian treaty not real ind., British occupation 1882

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Ottoman Public Debt Administration

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Run by Europeans to pay back debts of OE, same year as Urabi revolt (NOT connected to Egypt) Tazimat reforms lead to modern army, problem with repayment, OE is bankrupt in 1881

Front 7

Jewish National Fund

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1901: in Europe to BUY LAND, evicting Arabs, to start Jewish homeland, important in 1930s: Jews escaping Hitler= land speculation & depression= anger and striking (arab revolt), Jews take the jobs.

Front 8

Sharif Husayn

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Amir (prince) of Mecca (saudi arabi) 1908, tribal alliances, goal: autonomy from istanbul (OE) & wants to make position hereditary, Offers revolt against OE if Brits support ind. state around Mecca (Husayn-McMahon Correspondence): British agree to get Suez Canal access and weaker OE when it falls they get Lebanon

Husayn gathers tribal forces defeated by OE; arab revolt 1916 eight yrs later: overthrow CUP b/c they're not Islamic enough

Sykes-Picot: already determined he'd get nothing and contradicted McMahon letters

WWI ends, Ottoman territory split (S-P), Husayn fucked;

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Treaty of Sevres

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weak, poor central gov't that remains in OE: reinstated capitulations, Ottomans forced to sign, all foreigners given immunity

Husayn son: King of Syria (desposed in 1920) King Iraq

*deep-seat conviction Arabs have been betrayed!

Front 10

Sharif Husayn vs.

Back 10

Sykes-Picot, Suez Canal, Treaty of Sevres

Front 11

Ottoman Decentralization Party

Back 11

1912 (alongside Husyans revolt, mid WWI, OE is losing to Euro)
Responses to territory changes:
1. arab literary renaissance
2. islamic modernist movement (salafi)
3. islamic arabists (arab-centered reform, rashid rida)
Rida: degenerating Islam, OE needs to reacquaint w/arabic language, religious culture

Didn't want to go against Ottomans, wanted reform and decentralization w/in the OE
Formed during Young turk era

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Young Turk Revolt

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Support: young turks in exile, military, liberals/student (journalist, lawyers, etc)
Goals: military reform, protested Abdul Hamid, territorial loss (Anatolia to Russia), want poltical reform and reisntitution of constitution in OE to fight territory losses

Revolt: greece threaten to march on istanbul, hamid restores constitution, they win what the want initially but then clamp down on counter revolution

tie with Effendiyya & egypt for egyptians*
Counterrevolution encouraged by desposed Sultan-caused young turks to repress extremely

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Committee of Union and Progress

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Young turks inside OE (not exiled) that form this secret society to protest Hamid repression say it is reason for failings in OE loss of territory, believe in Ottomanism

Front 14

Sykes-Picot

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1916 (same year ODP ended, OE lost territory and disbanded soon after)
British & French: French control of Syria & southern Lebanon
British want control of Suez Canal area & Mesopotamia and right to build railroad Baghdad to Haifa in Israel (thought they'd find oil)

This contradicts Husayn McMahon that Husayn would get area: already promised to French/British
Another show of Imperial tactics-dirty game of Monopoly.
Railroad becomes important later with oil.

Front 15

Balfour Declaration

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Year after Sykes-Picot 1917
Preferrential status to Jews (minority, 10%)
British recognize Jewish homeland in Palestine, help from British gov't with JNF

Provides for: land/labor policy, immigration without limits

Negates Palestinian national interest, protested Palestinian Nat'l Congress of 1919: ignored

WHY?
Perception in Europe that Jews had influence in Middle East:
1. jews sell themselves to highest bidder (safeguard middle east)
2. pressure US to enter and stay in war
3. christian evangelism: hasten 2nd coming of christ
4. safeguard suez canal
5. keep russia in the war (support bolsheviks)

British suggest divison of state Jew/Arab, arabs reject, leads to Arab Revolt

REVOLT! decemation of arab nat'l movement, jews firmly in power

Front 16

Treaty of Sevres

Back 16

-OE forced to sign after San Remo Conference 1920
-reinstates capitulations
-gave european foreign merchants special access to region
-divided anatolia
-sovereignty limited (waters internationalized)
Problems:
-national movement agitated, turkey stripped of resources & economic flow by internationalization of waterways
-Kemal leads uprising against, seen as hero
-1922: Sevres cancelles Lausanne which recognized sovereinty of turkey with Kemal in power (he westernized & secularize)

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Turkish ban on fez

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-1926 after treaty of sevres and lausanne and young turk revolt
-part of larger effort by Kemal to look to europe for cultural guidance
-westernizing and secularizing
-women and men encouraged to embrace western dress
-turkish alphabet latinized, secular school established,

Front 18

Donme

Back 18

1908-1922: group in turkey that were jewish/muslims hybrid
-attracted attention during secularization/nationalization in turkey
-religious and racial identities combined
- religion no longer a belief system but a political identity
-presented problems with greek/turkish population exchangein 1920s: donme shipped to greece

Front 19

General Syrian Congress

Back 19

1920 Congress claim independent state of Syria with Faysal as King
-British and French respond at San Remo Conference the same year
-Faysals demands conflict with Sykes-Picot; French and British decide their alliance takes presendence
-French claim to Syria had to be recognized
-Britian wasn't allowed to support Faysal
-Faysal tries to negotiate with French, they march on Syria, Faysal exiled
-Independent Syria only lasts 5 months

-Arabs saw independent Syria as resurrection of OE, but crushed by European powers like everything
*Husayn, Sykes-Picot

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Al-Halab (Aleppo)

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-city in northern syria
-goal: garner support for aspirations of arab nationalism

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Vilayet (province) of Mt. Lebanon

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est. 1861
-semi-autonomous province from 1861-1920, OE didn't interfear as long as they paid taxes
-Druze minority, Maronite majority
-Maronite elite had ties to france, tho ethnically arab
-christian/jewish merchants had advantages from euro influence
-maronite peasants revolt against christian landlords, later evolved against druze landlords
-what was class conflict became a religious conflict
-1860 full on war, christian communities being massacred/forced to flee
-european had promised to protect christians in OE (so special autonomous state)

Front 22

Lebanon Census

Back 22

1932:
-fundamental role in state building process
-legitimized christian dominance
-is lebanon christian or arab state?
-census taken to determin representation for future lebanese gov't established in national pact
-established a 6 to 5 christian to druze rule
Problems:
-ration false
-excluded and included strange number of people in citizenship to limit number of muslims in census
-counted christians who had left but not muslims
-req. proof of residence to discount bedouins citizenship
-actually more muslims than christians and census resulted in problem of demographic composition
-no demographic rationale for christian dominance it had more to do with national sovereignty and race for independence/ westernization
-

Front 23

National Pact

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-Maronite President and Muslim PM met after French forced to give Lebanon sovereignty
-questions of divisions of representation remained
-in pact muslims recognized christian character in lebanon and stop trying to join with syria
-in turn the maronites would recognize that lebanon was part of middle east and had to join the arab league
-based on census of 1932
-endorsed status quo: christian dominance
-shiia (druze) community marginalized (largest in lebanon)

Problems: based solely on handshake between elites and not popularly elected leaders and the census it was based on was not true representation of population demographics

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Sati al-Husri

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1879-1967
-ideological founder of pan-Arabism, got from German nationalism
-less concerned with borders than with national identity
-pushes for common language & common history: basis of national identity
-history of arab nations not history of Islam, Islams duty was to spread arabism and preserve Arab identity
-Faysal invited al-Husri to direct education in Iraq & thereby promote Egypt nationalism under British nose (Iraq public education law)
-patriotism and nationalism
-Pan-arabism became major movement of 1950s Tal'at Harb who promoted nationalizing Egyptian economy rather than sole focus on cotton
-set up Egypt Bank (Bank Misr)

-Dreams not realized, in the end Pan-Arabism and Islamic solidarity lose to regional nationalism

Front 25

Iraq Petroleum Company

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Turkish Petroleum (1912): private investors backed by european powers

Kirkuk oil discovery in 1927

-European powers used concession to take mjority of oil and oil profits, Iraq biggest loser
-British (APOC), Dutch (shell), French (CFP) and US (standard oil) split profits evenly 23.7%
-Kingship of Faysal created legitimacy but British continued to hold economic and political sway over Iraq


*Add more

Front 26

Iraq Public Education Law

Back 26

1940
Under Faysal works with al-Husri to create national culture and cohesiveness in Iraq
compared to Egyptian education system, training future gov't officials and create national identity
encourages reforms that contribute to national culture
secular school system
saw it as a way to spread nationalism

Front 27

Anglo-Iraqi/Portsmouth Treaty

Back 27

-contained provisions of british mandate rule (british have colonial like power in iraq)
-faysal signs: allows for British military presence
-facade of independence with League of Nations invite
-caused Anglo-Iraqi war of 1941, divided elite left bitterness towards British
-one group wanted to keep ties and keep power; the other wanted to use war to push true sovereignty
-showed frustration at rule of British

Front 28

Dinshaway Incident

Back 28

-spark the ignited anti-british feeling
-british soldiers shooting for sport, wound wife of village prayer leader, set fire to some of village
-villagers protest: altercation, 2 officers wounded, 1 man later dies

-tribunal set up, 52 villagers charged with premeditated murder, some hung, etc
-Egyptians shocked
-British alien occupier not benevolent protector

Front 29

Effendiyya

Back 29

-major supporters of urabi revolt in 1881
-rebellion against colonial rule led by effendiyya
-all european style educated, economic and political liberalism
-exactly what european powers wanted to avoid
-1919 rebellion: pledge wafd as representatives
-main task was spreading nationalist ideas by using education as a political tool (connects to al-husri: same belief, and young turks: similar in liberalism and same demographics)

Front 30

Wafd Party

Back 30

-supported by effendiyya
-zaghlul was leader: exiled after 1919 revolution, this led to riots eventually became revolution of 1919
- want to use education as political tool to convince ordinary egyptians to join nationalist movement
-eventually lost legitimacy because of nepotism and corruption and when they signed the Anglo-Egyptian treaty
-power struggle between Wafd, Faysal, and British
-Muslim brotherhood emerge for Egyptians as more legit and popular

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National Upbringing--Egyptian school class 1907

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-course that Sa'ad Zahglul (part of wafd minister of education)
-called for the seperation for muslims and christians for muslim class
-clear nationalist strategy, along with Wafd ideals
(learning gendered modernity)

Front 32

Liberation of Women

Back 32

1898 published by Qassim Amin during furious social change
-advocated need for general cultural and social changes, imbedded argument for feminism
-colonial domination meant some (like Amin) more receptive to western ideals
-pointed to inherent backwardness of Muslim societies
-veiling and seperation points of contention
-restated european
-was actually an attack on middle/lower classes and traditions vs western views

Front 33

Future of Culture in Egypt

Back 33

1938
Written by Taha Hussein
-egyptian nationalist advocating independence and adoption of european institution
-after granting of independence in 1922 and anglo-egyptian treaty of 1936 granting self rule
-nationalization of suez recommended by taha hussein, finally becomes reality in 1956

Front 34

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty

Back 34

-signed by Wafd
-provision for independence for Egypt
-british retain right to defend egypt in case of attack, and military presence in suez canal zone
-abolished capitulations
-achievement of sovereignty didnt change egyptian politics; elite still in power
-reshaped cultural identitites (muslim brotherhood & feminism)
-did little to change ruling by british

Front 35

Society of Muslim Brothers

Back 35

-land distribution and local investments
-popular with the people after disillusioned by wafd
-hassan al-banna: started, influenced by salafi and muhammad abduh
-al-Banna sought a way for Muslims to take advantage of the technological advances of the 20th century without feeling they were compromising their Islamic values

Front 36

Midaq Alley

Back 36

-written about WWII egypt
-hamida: egypt
furad: west
Abbas: looking to british for

themes:
-european influence on women
-materialism vs nationalism
-submitting to foreign/national influence
-change society for west to approve

Front 37

Arab Revolt

Back 37

1936-1939
-after peel commission: unitary state couldnt be created out of contradictions in balfour, mandate should be terminated and create arab/british states
-no one willing to give up claims to absolute sovereignty
-arab violence renewed with peel announcement
-no national organization of violence
-british strong troop showing, harsh punishments
-jewish forces grow in strength
-failed to stop british as mandate power

Front 38

UN Partition Plan

Back 38

1947