Microbiology - Test 1

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microbiology

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the scientific study of microorganisms

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science

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an intellectual procedure in which knowledge is obtained by observation or experimentation. Results are used to develop an explanation and this explanation is tested to see if it is valid

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microorganisms (germs, microbes)

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living organisms that are usually too small to be seen with the unaided eye

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bacteria

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most numerous lifeform; smallest, simplest life form

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prokaryotic

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- cells without a nucleus
- has 1 circular chromosome of pure DNA
-no organelles (membrane-bound internal structures)
- small, single-celled organisms
-divide by binary fission
- asexual form of reproduction
-has peptidoglycan (cell walls of unique, complex carbohydrates)
-

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organelles

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membrane-bound internal structures

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peptidoglycan

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unique, complex carbohydrates

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3 basic shapes

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cocci - round
bacilli - rod-shaped
spiral - corkscrew-shaped

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Kingdom Monera

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bacteria (eubacteria)
cyanobacteria ( blue-green algae)
archaebacteria (old, ancient "arch")

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archaea

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- archaebacteria "ancient"
- extremophiles - live in extreme environments of heat, salt and no
O2
- prokaryotes, resemble bacteria

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extremophiles

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live in extreme environments of heat, salt and no O2

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fungi

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- mushrooms, molds, mildew, yeast
- multicellular
- unicellular
-eukaryotic - true seed
-has nucleus
- have organelles
- multi-cellular celled
- several chromosomes
- linear chromosomes
- DNA & protein
- some produce binary fission
- sexual reproduction

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sex

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recombination of genetic information from true separate sources into one

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genetic variation

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Darwin - law of selection

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chitin

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- cell walls of a simple carbohydrate
- non-photsynthetic
- decomposers (breakdown organic material)

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protozoa

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"zo" - zoo
- ex. amoeba, african sleeping disease, giacardia, paranicissm, malaria, dysentery
- eukaryotes
- kingdom of protista
- do not have cell walls
- move, motile
- ingest food with internal digestion
- one-celled

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algae

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- eukaryotes
- cell walls of cellulose
- photosynthesis
- unicellular, some are multi-cellular (seaweeds)
- "red tide" neurotoxin (similar to botulism
- agar - carbohydrate from red seaweed, a solidifying agent in microbiological media

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agar

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carbohydrate from red seaweed, a solidifying agent in microbiological media

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media

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any substance that supports microbiological media

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helminths

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- tapeworms, flukes, hookworm, trichinossis, toxoplasmosis
- multicellular animal parasites
- parasites flatworms & roundworms
- parasitism - a relationship between 2 organisms in which one, the parasite, benefits (nutrients reproduce) but the other the host, is harmed

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viruses

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- poison
- non-living (dead)
- very small particles
- "obligate intracellular parasites" - non-living particles that need a living host, cell in which to reproduce
-ex. flu, cold, small pox, measles, chicken pox, polio, ARS
-

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Importance of Microbiology

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1. pathogens
2. normal microbiota (normal flora)
3. food spoilage
4. food chains in oceans, lakes, rivers, algae lives in aquatic environments; photosynthesis
5. autotrophic
6. recycle chemical elements in soil, water and air
7. used to breakdown, pollutants (biomediation)
8. synthesis of chemical products
9. fermentation - ETOH, lactic acid
10. food - sour creams, pickles, sauerkraut
11. genetically-altered microorganisms - melanin
12. molecular biology - most of the discovery of cells (metabolism, gene expression, heredity) were first seen in bacteria

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pathogens

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disease-causing microorganisms 10% of earth

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normal microbiota

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(normal flora) those microorganisms normally found in and on the human body which, under normal conditions, do not cause infection or disease.
a) introduced into regions of the body where they are not normally found
b) weakened or compromised immune system (whatever was holding normal microbiota is cause of secondary infections (ie, AIDS, Karposis sarcoma)

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E. coli

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bacteria found in animals

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opportunistic pathogens

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normal microbiota that, because they were introduced into body region where they are not normally found, cause infections & disease

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nosocomial infections

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hospital - acquired infection

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benefits of normal microbiota

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1) exhibit microbial antagonism ( the ability to prevent pathogens from establishing themselves
2) synthetic Vit K

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autotrophic

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organisms that can make their own organic molecular from inorganic CO2, gas, water and are self-feeding

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heterotrophic

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organisms that were pro-formed organic molecules as a source of food (energy)

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decomposers

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organisms that break-down large complex organic molecules into smaller, simpler forms that can be reused (recycled)

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N2 - nitrogen-cycle

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-nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can convert NO2 nitrate compound
- NITRIFYING =convert organic compounds nitrogen gas

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synthesis of chemical products

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some microorganisms make chemical products that can be used in industry ex. acetone, makes TT (cordite)

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1930s human insulin

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humalin (70/30); genetic recombination; genetic engineering

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molecular biology

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most of the discovery of cells (metabolism, gene expression, heredity were first seen in bacteria)

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bacillus anthrakis

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have to grow pure culture

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vaccination

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procedure in which a person or animal (inocculation) with a dead or weakened disease-causing agent (attenuate); it won't cause the disease but will create immunity (resistance) to the disease

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rabies

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neuro disease; attacks spine, and cranial brain nerves; aka hydrophobia, used to be tested by cauterization - hot iron of __smith in fire or placed on the bite - cause 3rd degree burns, or pour phenic acids on burns; "incipitous" rabies means no S&S

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chemotherapy

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-treatment of a disease with chemicals
-taken internally
-selective toxicity - refers to the fact that these chemo therapeutic agens should only kill or inhibit with no effect on you

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Paul Erlich

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"magic bullet"
coal tar, stain
salvarsan 606

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quinine

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treat malaria from South American tree bark (cinchona tree)

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synthetic drugs

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manufactured, mass-made drug (chemical)
synthetic (sulfa)
man-made (protonsil) - derived from red dye

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lysozyme

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enzyme found in tears, mucous, saliva that kills some bacteria

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Alexander Fleming, 1928
(Florey and Chain)

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won Nobel Prize; penicillin chordatum - penicillin from bread mold; one zone of inhibition or an area of no growth

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antibiotics

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naturally-produced chemical agents made by living microorganisms that affect other microorganisms (either kill or inhibit growth)

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chemistry

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making or breaking of chemical bonds

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metabolism

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all the chemical processes that occur within a cell or organism
a. catabolism
b. anabolism

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catabolism

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chemical reactions in which chemical bonds are broken (energy is released)

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anabolism

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chemical reactions in which chemical bonds are made (energy is stored in the chemical bond)

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chemical bond

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the attractive forces between atom and molecules that hold them together

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atoms

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the fundamental particles of matter

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elements

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are atoms with their own unique chemical and physical properties. 92 different ones in nature

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CHONPS

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C - Carbon (solid)
H - Hydrogen (gas)
O - Oxygen (gas)
N - Nitrogen (gas)
P - Phosphorus - yellow powder
S - Sulphur

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Compounds

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are made up of 2 or more different atoms and they have different physical and chemical properties than the atoms that make them up. O2, H2O, NaCl
H2O

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molecules

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are larger, more complex, more energy-rich structure composed of 2 or more atoms held by chemical bonds

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matter

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anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass (weight) made up of particles

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energy

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force to do work (mass - accelerate)

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atomic structure:3 subatomic particles are___

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3 subatomic particles:
protons
neutrons
electrons

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protons

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p is for "pussy-tive" positively-charged subatomic particle found in the center nucleus of an atom; the number of protons is the atomic number of that element
*elements do not gain, lose, or share protons when forming chemical bonds; mass 1-amu

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neutrons

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a neutral (no charge) found in the nucleus of atoms mass 1 amu. The number of protons and the number of neutrons equals the atomic mass of that element
*elements do not gain, lose or share neutrons when forming chemical bonds

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electrons

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negatively-charged
- orbit the nucleus of atoms in specific levels, orbits, shells = "octet rule"
-1st shell = 2
- 2nd shell = 8
-3rd shell = 8

*elements do donate, accept, as have one or more electrons when forming chemical bonds. outermost level is called the VALANCE shell; mass is 1/1840 amu

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isotopes

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elements with the same atomic number (same number of protons),
but a different number of atomic mass (different neutrons)

*in electrically-neutral atoms, the number of protons equals the # of electrons

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ions

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electrically-charged atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons:
1) cation (+)
2) anion (-)

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cation

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are "pussitive" positively-charged ions

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anions

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negatively-charged ions

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ionic bonds

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a type of chemical bonds in which a metal (element whose valence is les than half-filled; donates one or more electrons to a non-metal (element whose outer shell have more than filled that accepts them)

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salts

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ionic compounds which in solution dissociates (forms ions)

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covalent bond

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(true chemical bond); a type of chemical bond in which elements (non-metal) whose outermost electron shell is half or more filled, shares one or more pairs of electrons;
ie. carbohydrates, lipids, protein, nucleic acids

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polar molecule

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because of the unequal sharing of electrons, a molecule has a slight positive charge on one end and slight negative charge on the other end.

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hydrogen bond

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a weak molecular bond, it occurs between the hydrogen atom of one polar molecule and the oxygen (or nitrogen) atom of another polar molecule. only 5% as strong as a covalent bond; they break easily by physical means (temp & pH). They give certain necessary life properties to water. They also give shaper, structure, strength to large organic macromolecules.

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inorganic compounds

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small, simple molecules. They are not made up of smaller, subunit molecules, covalent ionic bonds; never C-H bonds.
ex. water, salts, acids, bases, buffers

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organic compounds

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large, complex, energy-rich compounds

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macromolecules

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large, complex organic molecules composed of smaller subunit molecules

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functional groups

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molecules that are attached to the C-H core of organic compounds that give the organic compouns their unique chemical and physical properties
ex. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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compounds

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structure composed of 2 or more different elements

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inorganic

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small, simple molecules not made up of subunit molecules; never contain C-H bonds; ex. water, salts, acids, bases, buffers

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metabolism

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all the chemical reaction, within a cell or organism) occurs in water, and waqter is often a reactant hydrolysis or product dehydration synthesis of many biochemical reactions

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C6 +CO2----->CO2+H2O +energy

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aerobic respiratory

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H20+CO2-->sunlight--->C6H12O6+O2

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anabolism photosynthesis

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water

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*unique properties of water necessary for life
*due to hydrogen bonds because water is polar
1. has high boiling point 100C=212F
2. is an excellent temperature buffer; will not gain or lose heat energy (temp) quickly; high heat capacity. It can absorb a great deal of heat before it raises in temp
3. is an excellent solvent (a substance that does the dissolving); water organizes molecules based on whether they dissolve or not in water

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salts

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ionic compounds in water; they dissociate into ions; any cation except H+ and anion, except OH-

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acids

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ionic compounds in water they makes the H2 cation; proton donators, pH is <7; tastes sour' don't make OH-anion

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base

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ionic compounds from the OH-anion in solution and any other cation except H+; proton acceptors; bitter, pH>7; feel slippery

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buffers

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chemicals in a solution that prevent sudden drastic changes in pH and which maintains a specific pH

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organic compounds

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functional groups, large organic molecules composded of smller subunit building block molecules

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polymere

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macromolecule made up of repeating subunits building block molecules (monomeres)

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functional groups

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always C-H; molecules attached to the C-H case of organic molecules; give the chemicl and physical properties to the organic compound

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macromolecule:
CARBOHYDRATE

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subunit building block: monosaccharides;
simple sugar (glucose)
ex.
starch, sugars, chitin, celllulose, peptidoglycan
function:
energy source structure
C:H:O

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macromolecule:
LIPIDS

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subunit building block:
fatty acids, glycerol
ex.
fats, oils, cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid hormones
functions:
energy, storage, structure
C:H:O but not 1:2:1 ratio

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macromolecule:
PROTEINS

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subunit bldg block:
amino acids

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enzymes

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protein catalysts that dramatically lower the amount of energy needed for a biochemical reaction to occur

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cell membrane proteins

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as protein catalyst:
transport substaqnce in and out of the cell

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bacteriocins

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as protein catalyst:
chemicals produced by bacteria (E.coli) that kill other bacteria

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toxins

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as protein catalyst:
proteins produced by bacteria

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contractile proteins

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as protein catalist:
movement

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structural proteins

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cell membrane proteins for strucure and function of the cell membrane

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hormones

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chemical messages

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protein (bacteria)

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shapes often determines the functions of a protein

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primary structure (protein)

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initial sequence of amino acids, held together by peptide bonds (strong covalent binds between amino acids)

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secondary structure (protein)

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because of repetitious localized hydrogen bonding, the amino acid sequence forms either a helical coil as a pleated sheet

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tertiary structure

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due to hydrogen bonding the single amino acid sequence coils upon itself. This is the hightest level one amino acid sequence can go to 'supercoiling'

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quarternary structure

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two or more amino acid sequences in their tertiary level come together by weak hydrogen bonds

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denaturation

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the loss of a protein functional shape due to the breaking at the weak hydrogen bond and that held it in that shape (coagulation precipitation); denature by temp (heat), pH, chemicals

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CHON
P
S

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CHON - all proteins
P
S= some protein

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antibodies

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proteins for immune protection

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macromolecule:
NUCLEIC ACIDS

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nucleotides
i.e. DNA, RNA, ATP
function:
hereditary, energy-carrying`

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cell theory

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1. cells are the smallest, simplest, structural unit of life
2. all living organisms are composed of one or more cells
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells (biogenesis)

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prokaryotes

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"pre-seed"
*do not have a membrane-bound structure (nucleus)
- small, simple-cells, one-celled organisms
- no organelles
-one, circular chromosomes of pure DNA
-divide by binary fission
Kingdom of Monera: eubacteria, archaebacteria, cyanobacteria
-cell walls of peptidoglycan

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eukaryotes

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"true seed"
- have a membrane-bound structure called a nucleus
- larger, more complex, one-celled, multi-cellular or organisms
- have many, various of organelles
-several linear chromosomes of DNA & structures of protein
-some divide by binary fission
-mitosis
-sexual reproduction
- Kingdom of Protista: (protozoans, algae) - kingdom of fungi, animals plants

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cells

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Universal to all cells:
1) cell membrane
2) cytoplasm (cell contents: water or its contents
3) one or more chromosomes- bodies composed of DNA or RNA and protein that contain segments called genes (units of heredity)
4) ribosomes - small granular structures where protein are made

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chromosomes

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bodies composed of DNA or RNA and protein that contain segments called genes (units of heredity)

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ribosomes

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small granular structures where protein are made

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organelles

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internal structures within eukaryotic cells, each having their own structure and function

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binary fission

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asexual form of reporduction in which one cell splits (divides) into two genetically identical cells

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sex

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the exchange of genetic information and the combining of genes from two separate sources into one; leads to genetic recombination variation

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cellulose, chitin

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if cell walls are present they are a simple carbohydrate

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Morphology of bacteria

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-size: very small
-shape: because of their rigid external cell wall (peptidoglycan) most bacteria have one, genetically-determined shape

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monomorphic

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one permanent shape

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pleomorphic

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those rare, unusual bacteria with more than one shape

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cocci

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"berry", round-shape, sphere-shape

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bacilli

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"staff" rod-shaped (straight)

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spiral, "curved rod"

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vibrio - "comma-shaped" (cholera)
spirillum - "corkscrew-shaped"
spirochete - a flexible 's'-shaped

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bacteria arrangement

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random - no arrangement
diplo - pairs
strepto - chain of cells
staphylo - grape-like clusters
tetrads - groups of four
sorcinae - groups of eight
palisades - wall-like

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structures external to cell wall

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1) glycocalyx - a gel-like, slimy sugary carbohydrate (or carbohydrate (protein) produced inside the cell & secreted outside; the glycocalyx in whatever form is probably found in all bacteria

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Glycocalyx functions

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1) allows the bacterial cell to attach to a surface (ex. plaque or teeth)
2) allows a bacterial cell to resist phagocytosis (cell-eating) by WBC
3) helps the bacterial cell to resist dehydration (drying out)
4) acts an energy (food source) source for the bacterial cell
5) helps regulates the passage of materials in and out of the cell

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glycocalyx

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a gel-like, slimy sugary carbohydrate (or carbohydrate (protein) produced inside the cell & secreted outside; probably found in all bacteria

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capsule (glycocalyx type)

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small, uniform glycocalyx attached firmly to the cell wall fo the bacterial cell

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slime layer (glycocalyx type)

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larger, disorganized glycocalyx, weakly attached to the bacterial cell wall

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fimbriae

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many short, solid protein filaments at one end they are attached to the cell wall; they act on adherence

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adherence

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the ability of a bacterial cell to attach to a host cell "opportunistic pathogens" - attaches to host tissue

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flagella

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one or a few long, whip-like appendage, attached at one end to the cell wall, allows a cell to move (ATP energy)

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motility

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flagella's movement, in response to a stimuli (movement by some structures & ATP energy)

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pili (sex pili)

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one or two hollow tubes

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plasmid

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a small, extra chromosomal piece of DNA
* ony contain a few genes
*not necessary for the daily, normal (survival of the cell)
*a cell can give up a plasmid
*a gene for antibiotic resitance, resistance to heavy metal compounds, production of toxins, ability to evade the host's immune system

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conjugation

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a form of prokaryotic sex, the exchange of genetic information (material); pili tube acts as avenue for the plasmid to travel from one cell to another during conjugation

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cell wall

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a rigid structure external to the cell membrance; it is composed of a unique, complex carbohydrate called peptidoglycan

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functions of cell wall

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1) it protects the fragile, underlying cell membrane
2) it acts as a point of attachment for structures external to it (glycocalyx, fimbriae, flagella, pili)
3) its structures can be used to determine if the cells is G+ or G-
4) in some bacteria (G-) the chemical composition of the cell wall contributes to its ability to cause disease

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Gram stain

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a differential stain, a stain that can distinguish between groups of bacteria based on their reaction to the stain

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Gram +

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-thick cell walls, many layers of peptidoglycan
-cell walls contain TECHOIC acid
-no external membrane to the cell wall
-retain the primary stain crystal violet; do not decolorize
-do not counterstain
-appears purple
-more sensitive to lysozyme, detergents, antiseptics, disinfection, antibiotics
-endospore formers
-exotoxins: protein, metabolic, product, secreted

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Gram -

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-thin cell walls, one or only a few layers of peptidoglycan
-no TECHOIC acid
-has a membrane external to the cell wall
-it decolorizes, loses the primary crystal violet
-it can be counterstained, safranin
-appears pink (red)
-more resistant to lysozyme, most detergents, antiseptics, disinfectants, antibiotics
-non-endospore formers
-endotoxins - chemicals structurally part of the cell wall, only released when the cell dies

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endotoxins

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chemicals structurally part of the cell wall, only released when the cell dies

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structures internal to the cell wall:
CELL MEMBRANE (or plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane)

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a flexible structure that surrounds and encloses a cell's contents

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funtions of cell membrane

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a) selective permeability - (semi-permeable) - the ability of a cell membrane to allow certain substances to enter or leave a cell while preventing other substances from entering or leaving the cell; regulation and control
-substance:
*size'
*shape - 3 dimensional
*charge (+) (-)
*substance - lipid soluble
*presence of a cell membrane channel, carries protein

b) breakdown of nutrients
c) production of energy
d) infoldings of the plasma membrane can contain photosynthetic pigments

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selective permeability (semi-permeable)

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the ability of a cell membrane to allow certain substances to enter or leave cell while preventing other substances from entering or leaving the cell; regulation and control

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structure of the plasma membrane

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fluid mosaic model - the accepted model of a cell membrane

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phospholipids

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a complex lipid composed of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group

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phosphate head

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polar - hydrophilic "water-loving"
phospholipids - non polar tails (lipid tails) hydrophobia "water-fearing"

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phospholipid bilayer (arrangement)

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water organizes molecules; size allow them to go in and out: peripheral proteins

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peripheral proteins

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cell membrane proteins found only on one side of the phospholipid bilaers. Theyare easily removed. They are transmembrane (integral) proteins. Cell membrane proteins that span the entire phospholipid bilayers. They are permanent some are channel proteins

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the movement of substances across a cell membrane

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passive processes
active procesess

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passive processes

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-substances move in & out of a cell by their OWN kinetic energy; the cell DOES NOT DO work, DOES NOT USE cellular ATP for energy
-always move from a high concentration to a low concentration
-always temperature-dependent
-it it the heat-energized water as in molecules that supplies the energy for passive process
ex. simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

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simple diffusion

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the movement of a substance from a high concentration to a low concentration;
solvent - does the dissolving
solute - substance that is dissolved

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active processes

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-the cell does work, does use cellular ATP energy to move substances across a cell membrane;
ex. active transport

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active transport

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substances move from a low to a high concentration with the help of a specific cell membrane protein pump and ATP, sodium potassium pump/proton pump

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group translocation

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unique active processes in prokaryotes; chemical substances are altered (by the formation of chemical bonds) inside the bacteria so that they won't passively leak out

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cytoplasm - cells contents

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a) liquid, fluid portion cytosol (composed of water, protein (enzymes) carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic ions, low (-) molecular weight compounds; a medium where biochemical reactions occur
b) structures:
1-chromosomes
2-plasmids
3-ribosomes
4-inclusions
5-endospores

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osmosis

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the movement of WATER from a high concentration of WATER to a low conc. of WATER, across a selectively permeable membrane that only allows the solvent WATER not the solute through

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hypotonic solution

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there is MORE water outside the cell than inside, water enters the cell

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osmoticlysis

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the bursting of a cell in a hypotonic solution

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hypertonic solution

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LESS water outside the cell than inside, water leaves the cell

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plasmolysis

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the shrinkage of a cell's contents in a hypertonic solution, but not the entire cell because of its rigid external cell wall

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chromosomes

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one, single circular molecule of pure DNA; it carries units of heredity called genes

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plasmids

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small, extra chromosomal pieces of DNA

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ribosomes

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very small granular structures composed of RNA and protein, sites of protein synthesis (enzymes)

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inclusions

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chemical RESERVE deposits, stored when plentiful, used when deficient in the environment

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endospores

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highly-resistant, resting structures that some bacteria (G+ bacilli) make in response to harsh environmental conditions

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bacteriostatic

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agents that inhibit (prevent) growth but do not kill if the agent is removed growth resumes

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isotonic

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an equal amount of water outside the cell as there is inside,m no gain or loss of water

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facilitated diffusion

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the movement of GLUCOSE from high concentration of GLUCOSE across a cell membrane with the help of a specific cell membrane carrier protein

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inclusions

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chemicals that are stored within a bacterial cell when plentiful and used when deficient in the environment

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nutrients

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1) energy source (glucose,,,)
2) essentia subunit building blocks (CHONPS) of important organic macromolecules
3) regulate and control metabolism

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endospores

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are highly-resistant resting structures that some bacteria (G+ bacilli in response to adverse harmful environmental conditions)
ex. botulism, tetanus, anthrax

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vegetative cell

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a metabolically active cell, growing and dividing

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sporulation (sporogenesis)

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the formation of endospores

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germination

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a dormant endospore returns to an active vegetative cell

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germ theory

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microorganisms cause disease

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A van Leewenhoeck

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animacules

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R Hooke

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cell theory
*are the smallest, simplest living unit
*all living things are composed of one or more cell
*all cells come from pre-existing cells

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spontaneous generation

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life comes from non-living sources

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biogenesis

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life comes from pre-existing life

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Francesco Redi

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age of enlightenment

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vitalism

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force in the universe to create life from non-living sources

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aseptic technique

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methods to kills or remove microorganisms and prevent them from returning thus preventing contamination

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fermentation

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is a biological process which sugars are converted into ETOH, lactic acid
-sour wine had rod-shaped bacteria
-sweet wine had yeast

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pasteurization

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a mild brief heating of a liquid that kills heat-sensitive spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms without destroying the quality of the liquid

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Joseph Lister

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antiseptic surgery
-carbolic acid (phenol)-to the sewage

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ignaz semmelweiss

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chloride of lime; needs to wash hands- birth

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Koch's postulates

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a series of experimental steps that links a suspected microorganisms to a specific disease
(cowpox)

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immunity (Edward Jenner)

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resistance to a disease:
a) had to get the disease and live (cowpox vs small pox)
b) being exposed to a dead and weakened disease-causing agent (vaccine) which creates immunity but does not cause the disease (vaccination)