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179 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Genetics
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The study of what genes are, how they carry information, how information is expressed and how they are replicated.
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Gene
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A section of DNA that encodes a functional product, usually a protein
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Genome
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All of the genetic material in a cell
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Genomics
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The Molecular study of genomes
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Genotype
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The genes of an organism
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Phenotype
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The expression of the genes (what it looks like)
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E. coli is found_________in the large intestine and is___, however the strain__ produces_____and makes humans sick.
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naturally, beneficial
O157:H7, Shiga toxin |
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How is the chromosome map beneficial?
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It tells us exactly what's going on in the cell at a certain stage: metabailism, DNA replication and repair, membrane synthesis
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Name three flows of genetic information
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Expression, replication, recombination
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What is expression
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The cell uses genetic information within to produce proteins needed for functioning
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What is replication
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Genetic information is transferred between generations of cells during cell division-from parent to daughter cells
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What is recombination
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genetic information is transferred between cells of the same generation
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Name the polymer of nucleotides
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Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
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The double helix structure is associated with
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proteins
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What is the backbone of DNA
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deoxyribose-phosphate
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Strands of DNA are held together by---bonds between----
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hydrogen
AT and CG |
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DNA strands are anti---
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parallel
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DNA is a semi-----process with an---strand and a-----strand
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conservative
original daughter |
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DNA is copied by
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DNA polymerase
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DNA is copied in what direction
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5' to 3' (read 5 prime to 3 prime)
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DNA replication is initiated by an
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RNA primer
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How is the leading strand synthesized? The lagging strand?
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leading continuously
lagging discontinuously |
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What is produced in the lagging strand?
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Okazaki fragments
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How is the lagging discontinuous strand completed?
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RNA primers are removed and okazaki fragments are joined by a DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
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DNA Gyrase
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Relaxes supercoiling ahead of the replication fork
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DNA ligase
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makes covalent bonds to join DNA strands, joins Okazaki fragments and new segments in excision repair
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DNA polymerase
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Synthesizes DNA, proofreads and repairs DNA (is the "director" of DNA replication)
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Endonucleases
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Cut DNA backbone in a strand of DNA, facilitate repair and insertions
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Exonucleases
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Cut DNA from an exposed end of DNA, facilitate repair
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Helicase
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unwinds double-stranded DNA
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Methylase
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adds methyl group to selected bases in newly made DNA
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Photolyases
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uses visible light energy to separate UV induced pyrimidine dimers
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Primase
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makes RNA primers from a DNA template
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Ribozyme
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RNA enzyme that removes introns and splices extrons together
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RNA polymerase
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Copies RNA from a DNA template
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Topoisomerase
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Relaxes supercoiling ahead of the replication fork, separates DNA circles at the end of DNA replication
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Transposase
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Cuts DNA backbone, leaving single stranded "sticky-ends"
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What are the steps of DNA replication?
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1)Enzymes unwind the parental double helix 2)Proteins stabilize the unwound parental DNA 3)The leading strand is synthesized continuously by DNA polymerase 4)The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously, RNA polymerase synthesizes a short RNA primer, which is then extended by DNA polymerase 5)DNA polymerase digests the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA 6) DNA ligase joins the discontinuous fragments of the lagging strand
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What is transcription?
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DNA is transcribed to make RNA (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA) Transcription is writing down the message so it can be understood
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When does transcription begin?
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When RNA polymerase binds to the promoter sequence
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Transcription proceeds in what direction?
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5' to 3'
5 prime to 3 prime |
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When does transcription stop?
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When it reaches the terminator sequence
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Describe RNA processing in eukaryotes
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1) a gene composed of introns an exons is transcribed to RNA by RNA polymerase 2)Processing involves ribozymes and proteins in the nucleus to remove the intron-derived RNA and spice together the exon-derived RNA into mRNA 3) after further modification the mature mRNA travels to the cytoplasm where it directs protein synthesis
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What is the difference between exons and introns
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Exons have a coding region, introns have not coding
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Where does transcription happen?
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In the nucleus
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Translation is the--of the message
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reading
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mRNA is translated in codons which consist of?
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three nucleotides
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What is the start codon for translation of mRNA?
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AUG
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What is the stop codon for translation of mRNA?
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UGA, UAG, or UAA
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During translation, what happens if the ribosomal subunits do not come together?
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NO protein is made
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What is one type of drug that keeps the subunits from coming together?
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antimicrobial drugs
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In translation, amino acids are joined together by---bonds
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peptide
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In the regulation of bacterial gene expression what enzymes are expressed at a fixed rate?
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Constitutive enzymes--those that are needed constantly in order for the gene to funtion
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What enzymes are expressed only as needed?
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Repressible enzymes and inducible enzymes
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What is an operon?
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The control region of a structural gene which consists of a promoter and an operator. The operon carries the genes needed for expresstion.
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Explain the process of induction
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In induction, the operon produces an active repressor protein, and the default is that no enzyme is made.If the enzyme is needed, then the operon produces an inactive repressor protien which binds to the the active repressor protein and allows the enzyme to be made.
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Explain the process of repression
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In repression, the operons default is to make an inactive repressor protein so that the enzyme is always made unless something tells it not to (represses it) when the cell receives the signal that the enzyme is no longer needed, the operon will make an corepressor protein which will bind to the inactive repressor protein and become an active repressosr protein and the enzyme will stop being made
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In the regulation of gene expression, the lag time is what?
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the operon being turned off and on
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What is a mutagen?
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A change in the genetic material
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Are mutations always harmful?
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no, they can be harmful, neutral or beneficial
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What is a mutagen?
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An agent that causes a mutation
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What is spontaneous mutation?
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Mutation that occurs in the absence of a mutagen
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In a base substitution (point mutation) what happens in the DNA sequence?
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Change in one base can result in a missense mutation or a nonsense mutation
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In a missense mutation what happens?
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A new(unintended) amino acid is made
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In a nonsense mutation what happens?
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Results in a nonsense codon-no amino acid is made
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What happens in a frameshift mutation?
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The insertion of deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs, so the whole line of amino acids can be different
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Which is more dangerous, a frameshift or base substitution?
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A frameshift
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Mutations can also be caused by----radiation, caused by--------. This causes the formation of ions that can react with-----and ----------------
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ionizing, x-rays and gamma
nucleotides and deoxyribose-phosphate backbone |
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What process repairs ionizing radiation mutations?
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Nucleotide excision repair
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UV radiation causes---and -----------separates them
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thymine dimers,
light repair excision |
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Spontaneous mutation rate is
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1 in 10 to the 9th replicated base pairs and 1 in 10 to the 6th replicated genes
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Mutagens increase the mutation rate to
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10 to -5 in replicated base pairs and 10 to -3 ii replicated genes
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Mutagens ------increase the chance of mutation
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greatly
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What is selection, and the difference between positive and negative selection?
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Selection is trying to determine is a cell is a mutant. Positive (direct) selection detects mutant cells because they grow or appear different. Negative (indirect) selection detects mutant cells because they do no grow.
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Name two tests for selection
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Replica plating and The Ames test for chemical carcinogens
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vertical gene transfer occurs during
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reproduction between generations of cells
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horizontal gene transfer occurs
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between cells of the same generation
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Transformation is one type of____where____cells combine with ___cells
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recombination, dead, living
Transformation is a common process |
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Recombination is the -----of genetic material, where you have the -----plus something new. Genetic material is almost like a -----.
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changing, original, magnet
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Conjugation is a more specialized type of___________and is a ________process that happens in laboratories
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recombination, forced
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In conjugation, a ________is used to transfer the genetic material from one cell to another
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plamid
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When an F factor (plasmid) is transferred from a F+ donor to an F- recipient, the F- cell is converted into a
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F+cell
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When an F factor becomes integrated into the chromosome of a F+ cell, it makes the cell what
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a high frequency recombination cell (Hfr) cell
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When a Hfr cell passes a portion of its chromosome to an F- cell what do you get
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a recombinant F- cell
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Transduction is another type of
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recombination
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Transduction uses a ----and infects the donor cell, phage DNA and proteins are made and the bacterial chromosome is----. Occasionally during phage assembly, --------are packaged in a phage capsid, then the donor cell lyses and releases the phage particles containing-------. A phage carrying the-----infects a new host cell, the recipient cell and---can occur, producing a ----cell with a ------different than both the donor and recipient cells.
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phage, broken down into pieces, pieces of bacterial DNA, bacterial DNA, bacterial DNA, recombination, recombinant, genotype
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Genetic recombination is the
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exchange of genes between two DNA molecules
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Crossing over occurs when---break and---resulting in -----chromosomes
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two chromosome, rejoin, recombinant
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A plasmid is a____genetic sequence
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known
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Conjugative plamid
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carries genes for sex pili an transfer of the plasmid
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dissimilation plasmids
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encode enzymes for catabolism of unusual compounds
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R factors
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encode antibiotic resisitance
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Transposons
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segements of DNA that can move from one segment of DNA to another
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Transposons contain insertion sequences for
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cutting and resealing DNA (transposase)
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Complex transposons carry
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other genes
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Viruses contain DNA or
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RNA
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Some contain a ____coat
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protein
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Some are enclosed by an ____
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envelope
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Some viruses have___
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spikes
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Most viruses infect only
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specific types of cells in one host
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Host range is determined by
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specific host attachment sites and cellular factors
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HIV attacks____cells only
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Helper T
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Compared to bacteria, viruses are
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extremely small
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Many viruses consist only of a ____and ____________
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nucleic acid, and capsid
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The nucleic acid contains the
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genetic material
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The individual parts of the capsid are called
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capsomeres
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The genetic material----the virus
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controls
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The shape of the virus is important because
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the human body recognizes organization
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In addition to the nucleic acid and capsomere, enveloped viruses contain an envelope and sometimes spikes and all of these factors make them
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harder to kill because they're more protected
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Complex viruses can contain capsids, DNA, sheaths, tail fiber, pins, and baseplated.Name a type of complex virus
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Flu is a complex virus
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Complex viruses can inject another cell---
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very easily
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Bacteriaphage is a---
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virus
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In viral taxonomy, family names end in___genus names end in___
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viridae, virus
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In taxonomy, viral species a group of viruses sharing the same genetic information and ecological niche. ______names are used for species
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common
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In viral taxonomy, subspecies are designated by a
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number
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The genus for Herpesviridae is---
and species is--- |
herpesvirus,
human herpes virus HHV1, HHV2, and HHV3 |
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The genus for Retroviridae is---and species are----
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lentivirus, and human immunodeficiency virus HIV1, HIV2
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Viruses can only be grown in
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living cells
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bacteriophage form what on a a lawn of bacteria
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plaque--holes in cells (dead cells)
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animal viruses may be grown in_____or-----
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living animals or embryonated eggs
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Animal and plant viruses may be grown in cell culture. Continuous cell lines may be maintained
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indefinitely
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In creating continuous cell cultures 1) a tissue is treated with---to separate the cells 2)Cells are suspended in___and 3)Normal or primary cells grow in a monolayer and continuous cells----
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enzymes, culture medium,
don't grow in a monolayer |
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Continuous cells don't die because they're
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basically cancer cells
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Virus identification is determined by:
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Cytopathic effects or serological tests, or nucleic acids
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The easiest virus identification tests are
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cytopahic effects and serological tests
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Serological tests detect---in a patient.
Use antibodies to identify viruses in ___, ____. and _____ |
anitbodies,
neutraliztion test, viral hemagglutination, and western blot |
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Multiplication of bacteriophage in lytic cycle is
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Attachment-phage attaches by tail fibers to host cell.
Penetration-Phage lysozyme opens cell wall, tail sheath contracts to force core and DNA into cell Biosynthesis-Production of phage DNA and proteins Maturation-Assembly of phage particles Release-Phage lysozyme breaks cell wall |
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In the lytic cyle, phage causes
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lysis and death of the the host cell
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In the lysogenic cycle prophage DNA
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is incorporated in host DNA
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In specialized transduction, a galactose____-cell containing a phage, is able to inject a _________ containing the _______gene, into a galactose-----cell and create a ______________
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positive, phage, gal, negative, galactose positive recombinant cell
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Name the steps in the multiplication of animal viruses
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1)Attachment: viruses attach to cell membrane 2) Penetration by endocytosis of fusion 3)Uncoating by viral of host enzymes 4)Biosynthesis: production of nucleic acid and proteins 5)Maturation: Nucleic acids and caspid proteins assemble 6) Release by budding (enveloped viruses) or rupture
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Attachment, penetration and uncoating can be accomblished by----or-----
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pinocytosis(cell drinking) or fusion
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Release by budding produces an____that essentially takes part of the host cell's___with it. This gives the virus_____protection.
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enveloped virus, plasma membrane, additional
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DNA has a ____charge, while RNA can be ____ or ____
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negative,
positive or negative |
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In a DNA virus, cellular________transcribes_________in ______________
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enzymes, viral DNA, nucleus
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In a DNA, reverse transcriptase virus, cellular___transcribes___in _________; reverse__________copies____to make______
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enzymes, viral DNA, nucleus, transcriptase, mRNA, viral DNA
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In a RNA + strand virus, viral___is a _______for synthesis of_________
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RNA, Template, RNA polymerase
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In a RNA- strand virus, viral ________copies__________to make________in the ___
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enzymes, viral RNA, mRNA, cytoplasm
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In a RNA double stranded virus, viral ___copies_______to make_____in the __________
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enzymes, - RNA, mRNA, cytoplasm
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In a RNA reverse transcriptase virus, viral________copies____to make________in the ___________
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enzymes, viral RNA, DNA, cytoplasm
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Activated__________genes transform normal cells into ______cells
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oncogenes, cancer
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Transformed cells have_____growth, loss of _______inhibition, tumor specific___and_____
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increased, contact, transplant, T antigens
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The____material of oncogenic viruses becomes____in the tho host cell's DNA
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genetic, integrated
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Oncogenic DNA viruses (A list of 5)
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Adenoviridae
Heresviridae Poxviridae Papovaviridae Hepadnaviridae |
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Oncogenic RNA viruses
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Retroviridae
Viral RNA is transcribed to DNA which can integrate into host DNA HTLV1 HTLV2 |
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In latent viral infections
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virus remains asymptomatic in host cell for long periods. i.e. shingles, cold sores
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In persistent viral infections,
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disease processes occurs over long period and generally is fatal. i.e. subacute sclerosing panencephaliti (measles virus)
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Prions are____proteins
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infectious
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They are inherited and transmitted by______,______, and ________
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ingestion, transplant, surgical instruments
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Prions cause____. Name five diseases caused by prions.
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spongiform encephalopathies.
Sheep scrapie, Creutzfelt-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-Straussier-Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and mad cow disease |
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Normal cellular prion protein on the surface of the cell
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PrP^c
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Scrapie protein, accumulates in brain froming plaues
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PrP^Sc
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Plant viruses enter through___or via____
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wounds, insects
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Viroids are _____proteins, that have have infectious__________. Examples aore
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infectious, RNA, potato spindle tuber disease
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Viral genus of viral family papovaviridae (plant virus) is
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cauliflower mosaic virus
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Viral genus of viral family Picornaviridae (plant virus) is
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Bean mosiac virus
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Viral genus of viral family Tetraviridae (plant virus) is
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Tobamovirus
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Viral genus of viral family Rhabdoviridae (plant virus) is
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potato yellow dwarf virus
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Viral genus of viral family Reovirus (plant virus) is
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wound tumor virus
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Parvoviridae
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single stranded DNA, nonenveloped virus, human parvovirus, fifth disease, anemia in immunocomprised patients
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Adenoviridae
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Double stranded DNA, noneveloped virus, genus mastadenovirus causes respiratory infections in humans and tumors in animals
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Papovaviridae
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double stranded DNA nonenveloped virus. Genus papillomavirus-- common name human wart virus. Genus polyomavirus cause tumors, some cause cancer
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Poxviridae
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double stranded DNA enveloped virus.
Genus Orthopoxvirus-common name vaccinia and smallpox virus. Genus Molluscipoxvirus causes smallpox, molluscum contagiosum, and cowpox |
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Herpesviridae
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double stranded DNA enveloped virus
Genus Simplexvirus (HHV1 and HHV2) genus Varicellavirus (HHV3) Lymphocryptovirus(HHV4) Cytomegalovirus(HHV5) Roseolovirus(HHV6), Causes HHV7, Kaposi's carcoma (HHV8) some herepesviruses can remain latent in host cells |
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Hepadnaviridae
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double stranded DNA enveloped virus
genus hepadnavirus (hepatitis B) Use reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from mRNA |
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Picornaviridae
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Single stranded RNA, +strand, noneveloped
Enterovirus (includes poliovirus and coxsackievirus) Rhinovirus Hepatitis A virus |
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Caliciviridae
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single stranded RNA, +strand, nonenveloped
Hepatitis E virus Norovirus causes gastroenteritis |
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Togaviridae
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single stranded RNA, +strand, enveloped virus
Alphavirus (alphaviruses are transmitted by arthropods; include EEE, WEE) Rubivirus (rubella virus) |
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Flaviviridae
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single stranded RNA, +strand, enveloped
Arboviruses (can replicate in arthropods, include yellow fever, dengue, SLE, and West Nile viruses) Hepatitis C virus |
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Coronaviridae
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single stranded RNA, +strand, enveloped
Coronavirus (upper respiratory infections, SARS) |
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Rhabdoviridae
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single stranded RNA,-strand, one RNA strand
Vesiculovirus Lyssavirus (rabies virus) Causes numerous animal diseases |
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Filoviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, one RNA strand
Filovirus (enveloped, helical virusues) Ebola and Marburg viruses (low chance of survival) |
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Paramyxoviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, One RNA strand
Paramyxovirus (parainfluenza, mumps, newcastle disease) Morbillivirus |
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Deltaviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, One RNA strand
Hepatitis D virus (depends on coinfection with Hepadnavirus) |
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Orthomyxoviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, multiple RNA strand
Influenzavirus (influenza virus A & B) influenza C had envelope spikes and can agglutinate RBCs (more severe symptoms) |
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Bunyaviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, multiple RNA strands
Bunyavirus (CE virus) Hantavirus (very dangerous emerging infectious disease) |
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Arenaviridae
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single stranded RNA, -strand, multiple RNA strands
Arenavirus (helical capsids contain RNA-containing granules) Lymphocytic choriomenigitis VEE and Lassa fever |
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Retroviridae
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single stranded RNA, two RNA strands, produce DNA
Lentivirus (HIV) Oncogenic viruses (use reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from viral genome) Includes all RNA tumor viruses |
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Reoviridae
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double stranded RNA, nonenveloped
Reovirus (respiratory enteric orphan) Rotavirus (mild respiratory infections and gastroenteritis) Colorado tick fever |
